WHO guidelines on drawing blood:
best practices in phlebotomy
2010
WHO guidelines
on drawing blood:
best practices in
phlebotomy
March 2010
WHO/EHT/10.01
WHO Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy.
1.Bloodletting – standards. 2.Phlebotomy – standards. 3.Needlestick injuries – prevention and
control. 4.Guidelines. I.World Health Organization.
ISBN 978 92 4 159922 1 (NLM classification: WB 381)
© World Health Organization 2010
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iii
Contents
Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................................vii
Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................xi
Executive summary ........................................................................................................................xiii
PART I BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................................... 1
1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.1 Overview .................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1.1 Issues in phlebotomy ....................................................................................................... 3
1.1.2 The need for guidelines ................................................................................................... 4
1.1.3 Definitions ........................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Purpose and scope ...................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 Objectives ................................................................................................................................... 5
1.4 Target audience ........................................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Indications for blood sampling and blood collection ...................................................................5
1.6 Structure of document ................................................................................................................ 6
PART II ASPECTS OF PHLEBOTOMY .................................................................................................. 7
2 Best practices in phlebotomy ...................................................................................................... 9
2.1 Background information on best practices in phlebotomy .........................................................9
2.1.1 Planning ahead ................................................................................................................ 9
2.1.2 Using an appropriate location .......................................................................................... 9
2.1.3 Quality control ................................................................................................................. 9
2.1.4 Quality care for patients and health workers ................................................................. 10
2.1.5 Quality of laboratory sampling ...................................................................................... 11
2.2 Practical guidance on best practices in phlebotomy .................................................................12
2.2.1 Provision of an appropriate location .............................................................................. 12
2.2.2 Provision of clear instructions ........................................................................................ 12
2.2.3 Procedure for drawing blood ......................................................................................... 12
2.3 Illustrations for best practices in phlebotomy ...........................................................................18
3 Blood-sampling systems ............................................................................................................21
3.1 Background information on blood-sampling systems ...............................................................21
3.1.1 Closed systems ............................................................................................................... 21
3.1.2 Open systems ................................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Practical guidance on blood-sampling systems .........................................................................22
3.2.1 Needle and syringe ........................................................................................................ 22
3.2.2 Choice of gauge ............................................................................................................. 22
3.3 Illustrations for blood-sampling systems ...................................................................................23
4 Venepuncture for blood donation .............................................................................................25
4.1 Background information on venepuncture for blood donation ................................................ 25
4.1.1 Minimum requirements for venepuncture for blood donation ....................................25
4.1.2 Before a blood donation ................................................................................................ 26
4.2 Practical guidance on venepuncture for blood donation ..........................................................27
4.2.1 Collecting blood ............................................................................................................. 27
4.2.2 After a blood donation ................................................................................................... 28
4.2.3 Adverse events in blood donation ................................................................................. 29
5 Arterial blood sampling .............................................................................................................31
5.1 Background information on arterial blood sampling ................................................................31
5.1.1 Choice of site.................................................................................................................. 31
5.1.2 Complications related to arterial blood sampling .......................................................... 31
5.1.3 Sampling errors .............................................................................................................. 32
5.2 Practical guidance on arterial blood sampling ...........................................................................32
5.2.1 Equipment and supplies ................................................................................................. 32
5.2.2 Procedure for arterial blood sampling using radial artery ............................................32
5.3 Illustrations for arterial blood sampling .................................................................................... 33
iv WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
6 Paediatric and neonatal blood sampling .....................................................................................35
6.1 Background information on paediatric and neonatal blood sampling ......................................35
6.1.1 Choice of procedure and site ........................................................................................ 35
6.2 Practical guidance on paediatric and neonatal blood sampling ................................................ 35
6.2.1 Patient identification ..................................................................................................... 35
6.2.2 Venepuncture ................................................................................................................ 36
6.2.3 Finger and heel-prick .................................................................................................... 37
6.3 Illustrations for paediatric and neonatal blood sampling ..........................................................37
7 Capillary sampling ......................................................................................................................41
7.1 Background information on capillary sampling .........................................................................41
7.1.1 Choice of site ................................................................................................................. 41
7.1.2 Selecting the length of lancet ........................................................................................ 42
7.1.3 Order of draw ................................................................................................................. 42
7.1.4 Complications ................................................................................................................ 42
7.2 Practical guidance on capillary sampling ...................................................................................43
7.2.1 Selection of site and lancet ............................................................................................ 43
7.2.2 Procedure for capillary sampling ................................................................................... 43
7.3 Illustrations for capillary sampling ............................................................................................. 45
PART III IMPLEMENTATION, EVALUATION AND MONITORING .........................................................47
8 Implementing best phlebotomy practices...................................................................................49
8.1 Setting policies and standard operating procedures .................................................................49
8.2 Procurement .............................................................................................................................. 49
8.2.1 Blood-sampling equipment ............................................................................................ 50
8.2.2 Protection ...................................................................................................................... 50
8.3 Phlebotomy training .................................................................................................................. 51
8.4 Safe waste and sharps disposal ................................................................................................. 51
8.5 Prevention and management of incidents and adverse events ................................................. 52
8.5.1 Patient related ............................................................................................................... 52
8.5.2 Health-worker related .................................................................................................... 53
8.5.3 Risk assessment and risk reduction strategies ............................................................... 54
9 Monitoring and evaluation .........................................................................................................55
PART IV REFERENCES .....................................................................................................................57
PART V ANNEXES ...........................................................................................................................63
Annex A: Methods and evidence base ...........................................................................................65
Annex B: Infection prevention and control, safety equipment and best practice ............................69
Annex C: Devices available for drawing blood ...............................................................................71
Annex D: Managing occupational exposure to hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV ..............................73
Annex E: Training course content for phlebotomists .....................................................................77
Annex F: Explaining the procedure to a patient .............................................................................79
Annex G: Disassembly of needle from syringe or other devices .....................................................81
Annex H: Blood spillage ................................................................................................................83
Annex I: Modified Allen test ........................................................................................................85
Annex J: Cochrane review ............................................................................................................87
Annex references ..........................................................................................................................103
Glossary ......................................................................................................................................105
v
Tables
Table 2.1 Elements of quality assurance in phlebotomy ................................................................... 10
Table 2.2 Infection prevention and control practices ........................................................................ 12
Table 2.3 Recommended order of draw for plastic vacuum tubes ....................................................16
Table 3.1 Recommended needle gauge, length and device for routine injection and
phlebotomy procedures for different age groups .............................................................. 22
Table 4.1 Adverse events in blood donation ..................................................................................... 29
Table 7.1 Conditions influencing the choice of heel or finger-prick ..................................................41
Table 8.1 Summary of risks and risk-reduction strategies ................................................................. 54
Table B.1 Recommendations for infection prevention and control, safety equipment
and best practice ................................................................................................................ 69
Table C.1 Devices for drawing blood .................................................................................................. 71
Table D.1 Recommendations for HBV post-exposure prophylaxis, according to immune status ......74
Table D.2 Recommended two and three-drug post-exposure prophylaxis regimens ........................75
Acknowledgements vii
Acknowledgements
The World Health Organization (WHO) Injection Safety and Related Infection Control
programme and the Safe Injection Global Network (SIGN) Secretariat in the WHO Department
of Essential Health Technologies (EHT) wish to express their thanks to the people listed below
for their contribution to the development of these phlebotomy guidelines. The authors and
reviewers are experts in the field of injection safety and related infection control. Particular
thanks go to Shaheen Mehtar of Stellenbosch University, South Africa, who prepared
background documents for the consultation, and wrote the initial and final drafts.
Development of this publication was supported by Cooperative Agreement CDC-RFA-CI09-903
from:
• the Department of Health and Human Services/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC), Atlanta, United States of America (USA);
• the National Center for HIV, Viral Hepatitis, STD, and TB Prevention, Global AIDS
Program (GAP).
Technical authors and main reviewers
Internal authors and reviewers (WHO)
Dr Neelam Dhingra
Coordinator
Blood Transfusion Safety (BTS)
WHO Headquarters (WHO/HQ), Health Systems and Services, Department of Essential Health
Technologies (HSS/EHT)
Dr Micheline Diepart
Antiretroviral Treatment and HIV Care
WHO/HQ, Department of HIV/AIDS (WHO/HQ/HTM/HIV)
Dr Gerald Dziekan
Program Manager
WHO Patient Safety Program (PSP)
WHO/HQ, Department of Information, Evidence and Research (IER)
Dr Selma Khamassi, MD, MSc
Injection Safety and Related Infection Control
SIGN Secretariat
WHO/HQ/HSS/EHT/Diagnostic Imaging and Medical Devices (DIM)
Dr Fernando Otaiza, MD, MSc, Infection Prevention and Control in Health Care
Biorisk Reduction for Dangerous Pathogens
WHO Department of Epidemic and Pandemic Alert and Response
Mrs Susan Wilburn
WHO, Department of Occupational and Environmental Health (OEH)
viii WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
External authors and reviewers
Dr Rana Al-Abdulrazzak
Head of Donation Department & Hospital Liaison Department
Kuwait Central Blood Bank
Kuwait
Ms Patricia K Bertsche
Manager, Global Occupational Health Services
Abbott Laboratories
USA
Dr Nizam Damani
International Federation of Infection Control
Northern Ireland
Dr Che-Kit Lin
Hospital Chief Executive
Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service
Hong Kong
Dr Lawrence Marum
Team Leader Medical Transmission
Global AIDS Program, HIV Prevention Branch
CDC, Atlanta, USA
Professor Shaheen Mehtar
Head of Academic Unit for Infection Prevention and Control
Tygerberg Hospital and Stellenbosch University, Cape Town
South Africa
Dr Joseph Perz
Acting Team Leader, Research and Field Investigations
Epidemiology and Surveillance Branch
Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion (DHQP)
CDC, Atlanta, USA
Dr Ruby Pietersz
Manager of Department of Research and Education
Plesmanlaan 125, 1066 CX
Amsterdam
The Netherlands
Dr Christie Reed
HIV Prevention Branch
Global AIDS Program
CDC, Atlanta, USA
Dr Dejana Selenic
HIV Prevention Branch
Global AIDS Program
CDC, Atlanta, USA
Dr Steven Wiersma
Division of Viral Hepatitis
CDC, Atlanta, USA
Acknowledgements ix
Experts who contributed to the development of the recommendation
on skin disinfection before blood collection for transfusion purposes
Dr Michael Bell
Associate Director for Infection Control, Division of Healthcare Quality Promotion, NCPDCID
CDC, Atlanta, USA
Dr Barry Cookson
Director, Laboratory of HealthCare Associated Infection,
Centre for Infections, Health Protection Agency, London, United Kingdom (UK)
Dr Peter Hoffman
Consultant Clinical Scientist, Central Public Health Laboratory
Laboratory of HealthCare Associated Infection,
Centre for Infections, Health Protection Agency, London, UK
Dr Carl McDonald
Head of Bacteriology, National Bacteriology Laboratory
National Health Service Blood and Transplant, London, UK
Dr Ziad Memish
Director, Gulf Cooperation Council States Center for Infection Control
Head, Adult Infectious Diseases Section
Dept of Medicine and Infection Prevention and Control Program
National Guard Health Affairs
King Fahad National Guard Hospital, Saudi Arabia
Adjunct Professor Department of Medicine
Division of Infectious Diseases, University of Ottawa, Canada
Dr Shirley Paton MN, RN
Senior Advisor, Health Care Associated Infections
Centre for Communicable Diseases and Infection Control
Public Health Agency of Canada
Peer review
Dr Michael Borg
Chair, International Federation of Infection Control
Infection Control Unit
Mater Dei Hospital
Msida MSD2090
Malta
Dr Mary Catlin BSN, BA, MPH
4210 Midvale Ave N.
Seattle, WA 98103
Editorial work
Dr Hilary Cadman
Editor in the Life Sciences (Board of Editors in the Life Sciences, USA), Biotext, Canberra,
Australia
The EHT Department of WHO developed this document and Dr Selma Khamassi coordinated
the work.
x WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Declaration of interests
Conflict of interest statements were collected from all contributors to the guideline development,
the consultant contracted to undertake background reviews and the peer reviewers of the final
document. No conflict of interest was declared by any of those listed above.
Acronyms xi
Acronyms
CDC Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA
EHT Department of Essential Health Technologies (WHO)
HBV hepatitis B virus
HCV hepatitis C virus
HIV human immunodeficiency virus
HSS Health Systems and Services (WHO)
PEP post-exposure prophylaxis
SIGN Safe Injection Global Network
WHO World Health Organization
Executive summary xiii
Executive summary
Phlebotomy – the drawing of blood – has been practised for centuries and is still one of the most
common invasive procedures in health care. Each step in the process of phlebotomy affects the
quality of the specimen and is thus important for preventing laboratory error, patient injury and
even death. For example, the touch of a finger to verify the location of a vein before insertion of
the needle increases the chance that a specimen will be contaminated. This can cause false blood
culture results, prolong hospitalization, delay diagnosis and cause unnecessary use of antibiotics.
Jostling and jarring of test tubes in transit can lyse or break open red blood cells, causing false
laboratory results. Clerical errors in completing forms and identifying patients are common,
costly and preventable. Other adverse effects for patients are common; they include bruising
at the site of puncture, fainting, nerve damage and haematomas. These guidelines outline the
simple but important steps that can make phlebotomy safer for patients.
Phlebotomy also poses risks for health workers. It is still common to see a phlebotomist carry
out dangerous practices known to increase the risk of needle-stick injury and transmission of
disease. Dangerous practices include:
• recapping used needles using two hands;
• recapping and disassembling vacuum-containing tubes and holders;
• reusing tourniquets and vacuum-tube holders that may be contaminated with bacteria and
sometimes blood;
• working alone with confused or disoriented patients who may move unexpectedly,
contributing to needle-sticks.
Phlebotomy involves the use of large, hollow needles that have been in a blood vessel. The
needles can carry a large volume of blood that, in the event of an accidental puncture, may
be more likely to transmit disease than other sharps. Bloodborne organisms that have been
transmitted after needle-sticks include viruses such as hepatitis B and human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV), bacteria such as syphilis and parasites such as malaria.
Producing the guidelines
These guidelines were produced to improve the quality of blood specimens and the safety of
phlebotomy for health workers and patients, by promoting best practices in phlebotomy.
In April 2008, the WHO Injection Safety programme – part of the Department of Essential
Health Technologies (EHT) at WHO Headquarters in Geneva – convened a consultation on best
practices for phlebotomy and blood collection. The consultation included special categories, such
as arterial blood sampling, capillary blood sampling and paediatric blood collection. A working
group of international experts and colleagues from WHO departments identified the need for
phlebotomy guidelines, and this document was produced in response.
This document provides guidance on the steps recommended for safe phlebotomy, and reiterates
the accepted principles for drawing and collecting blood. The guidelines are based on a literature
review that focused on identifying systematic literature reviews and evidence relating specifically
to phlebotomy practices in developing countries. Draft guidelines and evidence were reviewed by
an expert panel, who reached consensus on the recommendations.
xiv WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Protecting patients
To reduce the risk of adverse effects for patients, health workers undertaking phlebotomy need
to be trained in procedures specific to the types of specimen they collect. Such procedures may
include arterial sampling, capillary sampling, blood culture collection and venous blood draws.
Health workers who collect specimens from children and infants will need special training and
practice for these procedures. Phlebotomists working in settings with more technology may be
trained in techniques for plasma and red cell exchange, photophoresis, stem cell collection and
cord blood collection. Health workers may need to collect specimens from in-dwelling central
lines or arterial lines. Training should include techniques that ensure that the specimen collected
will be adequate, and measures that reduce the risk of contamination, clerical error, infection
and injury.
When taking blood, health workers should wear well-fitting, non-sterile gloves, and should also
carry out hand hygiene before and after each patient procedure, before putting on gloves and
after removing them. The blood should be taken in a dedicated location that ensures patient
comfort and privacy. To remove the risk of environmental contamination with pathogens,
counter and work surfaces, and chair arms should be cleaned with disinfectant at the start
of each shift and when visibly dirty. To prevent infections and other adverse events, health
workers should follow the guidelines on patient identification, hand hygiene, use of gloves, skin
disinfection, use of appropriate blood-sampling devices and safe transportation of laboratory
samples.
Patient consent and cooperation are important components of respecting patient rights. A
patient information leaflet or poster that explains the procedure in simple terms is helpful.
Protecting health workers
Best practices in phlebotomy protect health workers as well as patients. One way to reduce
accidental injury and blood exposure among health workers is to use safety (i.e. engineered)
devices such as retractable lancets, syringes with needle covers or retractable needles and, when
appropriate, plastic laboratory tubes. Another approach is to eliminate two-handed needle
recapping and manual device disassembly, and instead dispose of the sharps into a punctureresistant
sharps container (i.e. a safety container) immediately after use. The best practice is
to discard the needle and syringe, or needle and tube holder, as a single unit, into a sharps
container that is clearly visible and within arm’s reach. The size of the container should permit
disposal of the entire device rather than just the needle.
Institutions should conduct surveillance on sharps injuries and accidental exposure to blood, so
that preventable factors can be identified. Support services should also be available for health
workers accidentally exposed to blood. These should include immunization with hepatitis B
before assuming duties that include potential exposure to blood and body fluids, and postexposure
prophylaxis for HIV and hepatitis B. All health-care facilities should display clear
instructions for procedures to follow in case of accidental exposure to blood and body fluids.
These guidelines also outline the responsibilities of managerial staff, including provision of:
• gloves in multiple sizes, single-use disposable needles, and syringes or lancing devices in
sufficient numbers to ensure that each patient has a sterile needle and collection device or
equivalent for each blood sampling;
• sufficient laboratory sample tubes to prevent reuse and manual washing.
Executive summary xv
Best practice in disinfection
After reviewing the evidence on best practice in phlebotomy, the expert panel found that further
evidence was needed on the best method for skin preparation before blood collection for the
purpose of blood transfusion. The panel commissioned a systematic review from the Cochrane
group to investigate the literature on whether “alcohol alone” or “any skin disinfectant followed
by alcohol for skin preparation” is more effective in reducing the risk of blood contamination or
bacteraemia.
The Cochrane group found that no research had been conducted to compare these two methods,
and commented that, until better evidences emerges, decisions would probably need to be based
on convenience and cost.
In line with WHO guidelines for the development of recommendations, additional infection
control experts were consulted. Based on expert opinion, including considerations of
convenience and cost, these guidelines recommend a one-step procedure for skin preparation.
Health workers should clean the skin with a combination of 2% chlorhexidine gluconate in 70%
isopropyl alcohol, covering the whole area and ensuring that the skin area is in contact with the
disinfectant for at least 30 seconds; they should then should allow the area to dry completely
(about 30 seconds).
Implementing and revising the guidelines
In some countries, these guidelines will be adapted to meet local needs, although key steps
and recommendations will be maintained. The WHO Injection Safety programme can also
provide technical support for adapting and implementing the guidelines at regional and
country levels, if requested. The feasibility of recommended practices and the impact of the
guideline on phlebotomy practices will be evaluated by the WHO Injection Safety programme, in
collaboration with WHO Regional Offices. The recommendations in this document are expected
to remain valid until 2014, when they will be reviewed.
PART I BACKGROUND
1 Introduction 3
1 Introduction
1.1 Overview
Phlebotomy – the drawing of blood – has been practiced for centuries and is still one of the
most common invasive procedures in health care (1). However, practice varies considerably
between countries, and between institutions and individuals within the same country (2). These
differences include variations in blood-sampling technique, training (both formal and “on-thejob”),
use of safety devices, disposal methods, reuse of devices and availability of hepatitis B
vaccine.
The methods and the evidence base used to develop this document are given in Annex A.
1.1.1 Issues in phlebotomy
By its nature, phlebotomy has the potential to expose health workers and patients to blood
from other people, putting them at risk from bloodborne pathogens. These pathogens include
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and
those causing viral haemorrhagic fevers (Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever, Ebola, Lassa and
Marburg) and dengue (3). For example, outbreaks of hepatitis B have been reported with the use
of glucometers (devices used to determine blood glucose concentration) (4, 5). Diseases such as
malaria and syphilis may also be transmitted via contaminated blood (6, 7), and poor infectioncontrol
practices may lead to bacterial infection where the needle is inserted and contamination
of specimens.
If a blood sample is poorly collected, the results may be inaccurate and misleading to the
clinician, and the patient may have to undergo the inconvenience of repeat testing. The three
major issues resulting from errors in collection are haemolysis, contamination and inaccurate
labelling.
Factors that increase the risk of haemolysis include:
• use of a needle of too small a gauge (23 or under), or too large a gauge for the vessel;
• pressing the syringe plunger to force the blood into a tube, thus increasing the shear force
on the red blood cells;
• drawing blood specimens from an intravenous or central line;
• underfilling a tube so that the ratio of anticoagulant to blood is greater than 1:9;
• reusing tubes that have been refilled by hand with inappropriate amounts of anticoagulants;
• mixing a tube too vigorously;
• failing to let alcohol or disinfectant dry;
• using too great a vacuum; for example, using too large a tube for a paediatric patient, or
using too large a syringe (10–20 ml).
Serious adverse events linked with phlebotomy are rare, but may include loss of consciousness
with tonic clonic seizures. Less severe events include pain at the site of venepuncture, anxiety
and fainting. The best documented adverse events are in blood transfusion services, where
poor venepuncture practice or anatomical abnormality has resulted in bruising, haematoma
and injury to anatomical structures in the vicinity of the needle entry. For example, one study
reported bruising and haematoma at the venepuncture site in 12.3% of blood donors (8). Nerve
injury and damage to adjacent anatomical structures occurred infrequently, and syncope
occurred in less than 1% of individuals (8). Vasovagal attacks occurred occasionally, varying
from mild to severe; fainting was reported in 5.3% of cases and usually occurred in first-time
female blood donors (8-11).
4 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Injuries from sharps (i.e. items such as needles that have corners, edges or projections capable of
cutting or piercing the skin) commonly occur between the use and disposal of a needle or similar
device (12, 13). One way to reduce accidental injury and blood exposure among health workers
is to replace devices with safety (i.e. engineered) devices (14–16). Safety devices can avoid up to
75% of percutaneous injuries (17); however, if they are disassembled or manually recapped, or
if the needle safety feature is not activated, exposure to blood becomes more likely. Eliminating
needle recapping and instead immediately disposing of the sharp into a puncture-resistant
sharps container (i.e. a safety container) markedly reduces needle-stick injuries (18, 19).
Reporting of accidental exposure to blood and body fluids is more frequent from wellestablished
health-care systems; however, it is thought that the incidence of such exposures is
actually higher in systems that are not so well equipped (20, 21).
Home-based care is a growing component of health delivery, and current global trends suggest
that home-based phlebotomy will become increasingly common. In this situation, stronger
protection of community-based health workers and the community will be needed. This can
be achieved by improving sharps disposal, and by using safety needles with needle covers or
retractable needles to minimize the risk of exposure to needles (22) and lancets.
1.1.2 The need for guidelines
Phlebotomy services are available worldwide in a range of health-care facilities (e.g. hospitals,
outpatient facilities and clinics), and are usually performed by both medical and nonmedical
personnel. Laboratory staff or members of phlebotomy teams appear to achieve lower rates of
contamination than staff who have broader responsibilities, even if both have the same training
(23). For example, for obtaining a blood sample for routine genetic screening of babies, the use
of capillary heel-pricks by a trained phlebotomist was found to be the most successful and painfree
blood-sampling procedure (capillary sampling is undertaken for rapid tests that require
small quantities of blood) (24).
Phlebotomy practice varies among health-care personnel, even though perceptions of risk are
similar and there are guidelines for such practice (20, 25). To help standardize practice, several
countries have established formal training that phlebotomists must undertake before they can
practice clinically, but physicians can often practice phlebotomy without formal training (26).
During phlebotomy procedures, the greatest concern is the safety of health workers and patients;
therefore, guidance for staff on best practice is critical (27, 28). Training on, and adherence to,
the guidance presented here should substantially reduce the risks to both patients and staff, and
will improve blood collection for laboratory tests and from blood donors.
1.1.3 Definitions
For the purposes of this document, the term “phlebotomy” covers the terms:
• blood sampling for purposes of laboratory tests;
• blood collection for donation.
1 Introduction 5
1.2 Purpose and scope
The aim of these guidelines is to summarize best practices in phlebotomy, to improve outcomes
for health workers and patients.
These guidelines recommend best practices for all levels of health care where phlebotomy is
practised. They extend the scope of the existing guidelines from the World Health Organization
(WHO) and the Safe Injection Global Network (SIGN), which is a WHO-hosted network. These
existing guidelines are:
• WHO Aide-memoire for a national strategy for the safe and appropriate use of injection
(29);
• Best infection control practices for intradermal, subcutaneous, and intramuscular needle
injections (30).
This document also discusses best practices for venous and arterial blood sampling, and blood
collection for transfusion for adult and paediatric populations. The document does not discuss
collection from in-dwelling central lines, arterial lines or cord blood; also, it does not cover stem
cell collection.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of these guidelines are to:
• improve knowledge and awareness of the risks associated with phlebotomy among all
health workers involved in the practice;
• increase safe practices and reduce bloodborne virus exposure and transmission;
• improve patient confidence and comfort;
• improve the quality of laboratory tests.
1.4 Target audience
This document is aimed at:
• people who perform or supervise phlebotomy in the private and public sectors, in hospitals,
community clinics and other health-care facilities, including those involved in home-based
care;
• health trainers and educators;
• procurement officials (who need to be aware of which equipment and supplies are safe and
cost effective).
1.5 Indications for blood sampling and blood collection
The most common use of blood sampling is for laboratory tests for clinical management and
health assessment. Categories that require specialist training include:
• arterial blood gases for patients on mechanical ventilation, to monitor blood oxygenation;
• neonatal and paediatric blood sampling
– heel-prick (i.e. capillary sampling);
– scalp veins in paediatrics;
6 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
• capillary sampling (i.e. finger or heel-pricks or, rarely, an ear lobe puncture) for analysis of
capillary blood specimens for all ages; examples include testing of iron levels before blood
donation, blood glucose monitoring, and rapid tests for HIV, malaria and syphilis.
Blood collection is used to obtain blood from donors for various therapeutic purposes.
1.6 Structure of document
This document is divided into five parts:
• Part I introduces the topic and the document.
• Part II covers different aspects of phlebotomy. Each chapter in this part is divided into
sections that give background information, practical guidance and illustrations (where
applicable). Part 2 includes
– the steps recommended for safe phlebotomy, including accepted principles for drawing
and collecting blood (Chapter 2);
– the various open and closed systems available for phlebotomy (Chapter 3);
– collection of blood for transfusion (Chapter 4);
– collection of arterial blood, for determination of blood gases (Chapter 5);
– aspects of blood sampling specific to paediatric and neonatal patients (Chapter 6);
– capillary sampling (Chapter 7)
• Part III deals with implementation, monitoring and evaluation; it covers
– ways to implement best practices in phlebotomy (Chapter 8);
– use of a monitoring and evaluation system to document improvements in phlebotomy
practice (Chapter 9).
• Part IV lists the references.
• Part V contains a set of annexes that provide additional information on specific topics; it
also includes a glossary.
PART II ASPECTS
OF PHLEBOTOMY
2 Best practices in phlebotomy 9
2 Best practices in phlebotomy
This chapter covers all the steps recommended for safe phlebotomy and reiterates the accepted
principles for blood drawing and blood collection (31). The chapter includes background
information (Section 2.1), practical guidance (Section 2.2) and illustrations (Section 2.3)
relevant to best practices in phlebotomy.
The information given in this section underpins that given in the remainder of Part II for specific
situations. Chapter 4 also provides information relevant to the procedure for drawing blood
given below in Section 2.2, but focuses on blood collection from donors.
Institutions can use these guidelines to establish standard operating procedures. Such
procedures should clearly state the risks to patients and health workers, as well as the means to
reduce those risks – discussed below in Sections 2.1.4 and 2.2.
2.1 Background information on best practices in phlebotomy
Best practices in phlebotomy involve the following factors:
• planning ahead;
• using an appropriate location;
• quality control;
• standards for quality care for patients and health workers, including
– availability of appropriate supplies and protective equipment;
– availability of post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP);
– avoidance of contaminated phlebotomy equipment;
– appropriate training in phlebotomy;
– cooperation on the part of patients;
• quality of laboratory sampling.
2.1.1 Planning ahead
This is the most important part of carrying out any procedure, and is usually done at the start of
a phlebotomy session.
2.1.2 Using an appropriate location
The phlebotomist should work in a quiet, clean, well-lit area, whether working with outpatients
or inpatients.
2.1.3 Quality control
Quality assurance is an essential part of best practice in infection prevention and control (1). In
phlebotomy, it helps to minimize the chance of a mishap. Table 2.1 lists the main components of
quality assurance, and explains why they are important.
10 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Table 2.1 Elements of quality assurance in phlebotomy
Element Notes
Education and training Education and training is necessary for all staff carrying out phlebotomy. It should
include an understanding of anatomy, awareness of the risks from blood exposure,
and the consequences of poor infection prevention and control.
Standard operating
procedures (SOPs)
SOPs are required for each step or procedure. They should be written and be
readily available to health workers.
Correct identification of
the patient
Identification should be through matching to the laboratory request form.
• For blood donation, the identity of the donor should be accurately matched to
the results of screening tests.
• For blood sampling, after samples have been taken from a patient or donor, a
system of identification and tracking is essential to ensure that the sample is
correctly matched with the result and with the patient or donor.
The condition of the
sample
The condition of the sample should be such that the quality of the results is
satisfactory.
Safe transportation Making safe transportation of blood or blood products part of best practices will
improve the quality of results from laboratory testing (32).
An incident reporting
system
A system is required for reporting all adverse events. A log book or register
should be established with accurate details of the incident, possible causes and
management of adverse events (27).
2.1.4 Quality care for patients and health workers
Several factors can improve safety standards and quality of care for both patients and health
workers, and laboratory tests. These factors, discussed below, include:
Availability of appropriate supplies and protective equipment
Procurement of supplies is the direct responsibility of the administrative (management)
structures responsible for setting up phlebotomy services. Management should:
• provide hand-hygiene materials (soap and water or alcohol rub), well-fitting non-sterile
gloves, single-use disposable needles, and syringes or lancing devices in sufficient numbers
to ensure that each patient has a sterile needle and syringe or equivalent for each blood
sampling;
• make available sufficient laboratory sample tubes to prevent dangerous practices
(e.g. decanting blood to recycle laboratory tubes).
Several safety-engineered devices are available on the market; such devices reduce exposure to
blood and injuries. However, the use of such devices should be accompanied by other infection
prevention and control practices, and training in their use. Not all safety devices are applicable
to phlebotomy. Before selecting a safety-engineered device, users should thoroughly investigate
available devices to determine their appropriate use, compatibility with existing phlebotomy
practices, and efficacy in protecting staff and patients (12, 33). Annex B provides further
information on infection prevention and control, safety equipment and best practice; Annex C
provides a comprehensive guide to devices available for drawing blood, including safetyengineered
equipment.
For settings with low resources, cost is a driving factor in procurement of safety-engineered
devices.
Where safety-engineered devices are not available, skilled use of a needle and syringe is
acceptable.
2 Best practices in phlebotomy 11
Availability of post-exposure prophylaxis
Accidental exposure and specific information about an incident should be recorded in a register.
Support services should be promoted for those who undergo accidental exposure. PEP can help
to avert HIV and hepatitis B infections (13, 27). Hepatitis B immunization should be provided
to all health workers (including cleaners and waste handlers), either upon entry into health-care
services or as part of PEP (34). Annex D has details of PEP for hepatitis B and HIV.
Avoidance of contaminated phlebotomy equipment
Tourniquets are a potential source of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),
with up to 25% of tourniquets contaminated through lack of hand hygiene on the part of the
phlebotomist or reuse of contaminated tourniquets (35). In addition, reusable finger-prick
devices and related point-of-care testing devices (e.g. glucometers) contaminated with blood
have been implicated in outbreaks of hepatitis B (4, 5, 36).
To avoid contamination, any common-use items, such as glucometers, should be visibly clean
before use on a patient, and single-use items should not be reused.
Training in phlebotomy
All staff should be trained in phlebotomy, to prevent unnecessary risk of exposure to blood and
to reduce adverse events for patients.
• Groups of health workers who historically are not formally trained in phlebotomy should be
encouraged to take up such training; lax infection prevention and control practices result in
poor safety for staff and risk to patients (20, 37).
• The length and depth of training will depend on local conditions; however, the training
should at least cover the essentials (see Annex E) (38).
• Supervision by experienced staff and structured training is necessary for all health workers,
including physicians, who undertake blood sampling.
Patient cooperation
One of the essential markers of quality of care in phlebotomy is the involvement and cooperation
of the patient; this is mutually beneficial to both the health worker and the patient.
Clear information – either written or verbal – should be available to each patient who undergoes
phlebotomy. Annex F provides sample text for explaining the blood-sampling procedure to a
patient.
2.1.5 Quality of laboratory sampling
Factors that influence the outcome of laboratory results during collection and transportation
include:
• knowledge of staff involved in blood collection;
• use of the correct gauge of hypodermic needle (see Table 3.1 in Chapter 3) to prevent
haemolysis or abnormal results;
• the anatomical insertion site for venepuncture;
• the use of recommended laboratory collection tubes;
• patient–sample matching (i.e. labelling);
• transportation conditions;
• interpretation of results for clinical management.
12 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
2.2 Practical guidance on best practices in phlebotomy
2.2.1 Provision of an appropriate location
• In an outpatient department or clinic, provide a dedicated phlebotomy cubicle containing:
– a clean surface with two chairs (one for the phlebotomist and the other for the patient);
– a hand wash basin with soap, running water and paper towels;
– alcohol hand rub.
• In the blood-sampling room for an outpatient department or clinic, provide a comfortable
reclining couch with an arm rest.
• In inpatient areas and wards:
– at the patient’s bedside, close the bed curtain to offer privacy
– ensure that blood sampling is done in a private and clean manner.
2.2.2 Provision of clear instructions
Ensure that the indications for blood sampling are clearly defined, either in a written protocol or
in documented instructions (e.g. in a laboratory form).
2.2.3 Procedure for drawing blood
At all times, follow the strategies for infection prevention and control listed in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2 Infection prevention and control practices
Do Do not
DO carry out hand hygiene (use soap and water or
alcohol rub), and wash carefully, including wrists and
spaces between the fingers for at least 30 seconds
(follow WHO’s ‘My 5 moments for hand hygiene’a)
DO NOT forget to clean your hands
DO use one pair of non-sterile gloves per procedure
or patient
DO NOT use the same pair of gloves for more than
one patient
DO NOT wash gloves for reuse
DO use a single-use device for blood sampling and
drawing
DO NOT use a syringe, needle or lancet for more
than one patient
DO disinfect the skin at the venepuncture site DO NOT touch the puncture site after disinfecting it
DO discard the used device (a needle and syringe
is a single unit) immediately into a robust sharps
container
DO NOT leave an unprotected needle lying outside
the sharps container
Where recapping of a needle is unavoidable, DO use
the one-hand scoop technique (see Annex G)
DO NOT recap a needle using both hands
DO seal the sharps container with a tamper-proof lid DO NOT overfill or decant a sharps container
DO place laboratory sample tubes in a sturdy rack
before injecting into the rubber stopper
DO NOT inject into a laboratory tube while holding it
with the other hand
DO immediately report any incident or accident
linked to a needle or sharp injury, and seek
assistance; start PEP as soon as possible, following
protocols
DO NOT delay PEP after exposure to potentially
contaminated material; beyond 72 hours, PEP is NOT
effective
PEP, post-exposure prophylaxis; WHO, World Health Organization.
a http://www.who.int/gpsc/5may/background/5moments/en/index.html
2 Best practices in phlebotomy 13
Step 1 – Assemble equipment
Collect all the equipment needed for the procedure and place it within safe and easy reach on a
tray or trolley, ensuring that all the items are clearly visible. The equipment required includes:
• a supply of laboratory sample tubes, which should be stored dry and upright in a rack;
blood can be collected in
– sterile glass or plastic tubes with rubber caps (the choice of tube will depend on what is
agreed with the laboratory);
– vacuum-extraction blood tubes; or
– glass tubes with screw caps;
• a sterile glass or bleeding pack (collapsible) if large quantities of blood are to be collected;
• well-fitting, non-sterile gloves;
• an assortment of blood-sampling devices (safety-engineered devices or needles and
syringes, see below), of different sizes;
• a tourniquet;
• alcohol hand rub;
• 70% alcohol swabs for skin disinfection;
• gauze or cotton-wool ball to be applied over puncture site;
• laboratory specimen labels;
• writing equipment;
• laboratory forms;
• leak-proof transportation bags and containers;
• a puncture-resistant sharps container.
Ensure that the rack containing the sample tubes is close to you, the health worker, but away
from the patient, to avoid it being accidentally tipped over.
Step 2 – Identify and prepare the patient
Where the patient is adult and conscious, follow the steps outlined below.
• Introduce yourself to the patient, and ask the patient to state their full name.
• Check that the laboratory form matches the patient’s identity (i.e. match the patient’s
details with the laboratory form, to ensure accurate identification).
• Ask whether the patent has allergies, phobias or has ever fainted during previous injections
or blood draws.
• If the patient is anxious or afraid, reassure the person and ask what would make them more
comfortable.
• Make the patient comfortable in a supine position (if possible).
• Place a clean paper or towel under the patient’s arm.
• Discuss the test to be performed (see Annex F) and obtain verbal consent. The patient has a
right to refuse a test at any time before the blood sampling, so it is important to ensure that
the patient has understood the procedure.
For paediatric or neonatal patients, see Chapter 6.
14 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Step 3 – Select the site
General
• Extend the patient’s arm and inspect the antecubital fossa or forearm.
• Locate a vein of a good size that is visible, straight and clear. The diagram in Section 2.3,
shows common positions of the vessels, but many variations are possible. The median
cubital vein lies between muscles and is usually the most easy to puncture. Under the basilic
vein runs an artery and a nerve, so puncturing here runs the risk of damaging the nerve or
artery and is usually more painful. DO NOT insert the needle where veins are diverting,
because this increases the chance of a haematoma.
• The vein should be visible without applying the tourniquet. Locating the vein will help in
determining the correct size of needle.
• Apply the tourniquet about 4–5 finger widths above the venepuncture site and re-examine
the vein.
Hospitalized patients
In hospitalized patients, do not take blood from an existing peripheral venous access site
because this may give false results. Haemolysis, contamination and presence of intravenous fluid
and medication can all alter the results (39). Nursing staff and physicians may access central
venous lines for specimens following protocols. However, specimens from central lines carry a
risk of contamination or erroneous laboratory test results.
It is acceptable, but not ideal, to draw blood specimens when first introducing an in-dwelling
venous device, before connecting the cannula to the intravenous fluids.
Step 4 – Perform hand hygiene and put on gloves
• Perform hand hygiene; that is
– wash hands with soap and water, and dry with single-use towels; or
– if hands are not visibly contaminated, clean with alcohol rub – use 3 ml of alcohol rub
on the palm of the hand, and rub it into fingertips, back of hands and all over the hands
until dry.
• After performing hand hygiene, put on well-fitting, non-sterile gloves.
Step 5 – Disinfect the entry site
• Unless drawing blood cultures, or prepping for a blood collection, clean the site with a 70%
alcohol swab for 30 seconds and allow to dry completely (30 seconds) (40–42).
Note: alcohol is preferable to povidone iodine, because blood contaminated with povidone
iodine may falsely increase levels of potassium, phosphorus or uric acid in laboratory test
results (6, 7).
• Apply firm but gentle pressure. Start from the centre of the venepuncture site and work
downward and outwards to cover an area of 2 cm or more.
• Allow the area to dry. Failure to allow enough contact time increases the risk of
contamination.
• DO NOT touch the cleaned site; in particular, DO NOT place a finger over the vein to guide
the shaft of the exposed needle. It the site is touched, repeat the disinfection.
2 Best practices in phlebotomy 15
Step 6 – Take blood
Venepuncture
Perform venepuncture as follows.
• Anchor the vein by holding the patient’s arm and placing a thumb BELOW the
venepuncture site.
• Ask the patient to form a fist so the veins are more prominent.
• Enter the vein swiftly at a 30 degree angle or less, and continue to introduce the needle
along the vein at the easiest angle of entry.
• Once sufficient blood has been collected, release the tourniquet BEFORE withdrawing
the needle. Some guidelines suggest removing the tourniquet as soon as blood flow is
established, and always before it has been in place for two minutes or more.
• Withdraw the needle gently and apply gentle pressure to the site with a clean gauze or
dry cotton-wool ball. Ask the patient to hold the gauze or cotton wool in place, with the
arm extended and raised. Ask the patient NOT to bend the arm, because doing so causes a
haematoma.
Step 7 – Fill the laboratory sample tubes
• When obtaining multiple tubes of blood, use evacuated tubes with a needle and tube
holder. This system allows the tubes to be filled directly. If this system is not available, use a
syringe or winged needle set instead.
• If a syringe or winged needle set is used, best practice is to place the tube into a rack before
filling the tube. To prevent needle-sticks, use one hand to fill the tube or use a needle shield
between the needle and the hand holding the tube.
• Pierce the stopper on the tube with the needle directly above the tube using slow, steady
pressure. Do not press the syringe plunger because additional pressure increases the risk of
haemolysis.
• Where possible, keep the tubes in a rack and move the rack towards you. Inject downwards
into the appropriate coloured stopper. DO NOT remove the stopper because it will release
the vacuum.
• If the sample tube does not have a rubber stopper, inject extremely slowly into the tube
as minimizing the pressure and velocity used to transfer the specimen reduces the risk of
haemolysis. DO NOT recap and remove the needle.
• Before dispatch, invert the tubes containing additives for the required number of times (as
specified by the local laboratory).
Step 8 – Draw samples in the correct order
Draw blood collection tubes in the correct order, to avoid cross-contamination of additives
between tubes. As colour coding and tube additives may vary, verify recommendations with local
laboratories. For illustration purposes, Table 2.3 shows the revised, simplified recommended
order of draw for vacuum tubes or syringe and needle, based on United States National
Committee Clinical Laboratory Standards consensus in 2003 (43).
16 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Table 2.3 Recommended order of draw for plastic vacuum tubes
Order
of usea
Type of tube/usual
colourb
Additivec Mode of action Uses
1 Blood culture bottle
(yellow-black striped
tubes)
Broth mixture Preserves viability of
microorganisms
Microbiology –
aerobes, anaerobes,
fungi
2 Non-additive tube
3 Coagulation tubed
(light blue top)
Sodium citrate Forms calcium salts to
remove calcium
Coagulation tests
(protime and
prothrombin time),
requires full draw
4 Clot activator (red top) Clot activator Blood clots, and the
serum is separated by
centrifugation
Chemistries,
immunology and
serology, blood bank
(cross-match)
5 Serum separator tube
(red-grey tiger top or
gold)
None Contains a gel at the
bottom to separate
blood from serum on
centrifugation
Chemistries,
immunology and
serology
6 Sodium heparin (dark
green top)
Sodium heparin or
lithium heparin
Inactivates thrombin and
thromboplastin
For lithium level use
sodium heparin, for
ammonia level use
either
7 PST (light green top) Lithium heparin
anticoagulant and a
gel separator
Anticoagulants with
lithium, separates
plasma with PST gel at
bottom of tube
Chemistries
8 EDTA (purple top) EDTA Forms calcium salts to
remove calcium
Haematology, Blood
Bank (cross-match)
requires full draw
9 Blood tube (pale yellow
top)
Acid-citrate-dextrose
(ACD, ACDA or
ACDB)
Complement inactivation HLA tissue typing,
paternity testing,
DNA studies
10 Oxalate/fluoride
(light grey top)
Sodium fluoride and
potassium oxalate
Antiglycolytic agent
preserves glucose up to
five days
Glucoses, requires
full draw (may cause
haemolysis if short
draw)
ACD, acid-citrate-dextrose; DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid; EDTA, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid; HLA, human leucocyte antigen; PST, plasma
separating tube.
a “1” indicates draw first, and “10” draw last (if used).
b Verify with local laboratory in case local colour codes differ.
c Gently invert tubes with additives to mix thoroughly; erroneous test results may be obtained when the blood is not thoroughly mixed with the
additive.
d If a routine coagulation assay is the only test ordered, then a single light blue top tube may be drawn. If there is a concern about
contamination by tissue fluids or thromboplastins, then a nona-dditive tube can be drawn before the additive tube. The PST tube contains
lithium heparin anticoagulant and a gel separator; if used, draw in the order shown.
Source: Table adapted with permission from WebPath, Mercer University, United States (http://library.med.utah.edu/WebPath/webpath.html).
Order is based on United States National Committee for Clinical Laboratory Standards consensus (43).
2 Best practices in phlebotomy 17
Step 9 – Clean contaminated surfaces and complete patient procedure
• Discard the used needle and syringe or blood sampling device into a puncture-resistant
sharps container.
• Check the label and forms for accuracy. The label should be clearly written with the
information required by the laboratory, which is typically the patient’s first and last names,
file number, date of birth, and the date and time when the blood was taken.
• Discard used items into the appropriate category of waste. Items used for phlebotomy that
would not release a drop of blood if squeezed (e.g. gloves) may be discarded in the general
waste, unless local regulations state otherwise.
• Perform hand hygiene again, as described above.
• Recheck the labels on the tubes and the forms before dispatch.
• Inform the patient when the procedure is over.
• Ask the patient or donor how they are feeling. Check the insertion site to verify that it is not
bleeding, then thank the patient and say something reassuring and encouraging before the
person leaves.
Step 10 – Prepare samples for transportation
• Pack laboratory samples safely in a plastic leak-proof bag with an outside compartment
for the laboratory request form. Placing the requisition on the outside helps avoid
contamination.
• If there are multiple tubes, place them in a rack or padded holder to avoid breakage during
transportation.
Step 11 – Clean up spills of blood or body fluids
If blood spillage has occurred (e.g. because of a laboratory sample breaking in the phlebotomy
area or during transportation, or excessive bleeding during the procedure), clean it up. An
example of a safe procedure is given below.
• Put on gloves and a gown or apron if contamination or bleaching of a uniform is likely in a
large spill.
• Mop up liquid from large spills using paper towels, and place them into the infectious
waste.
• Remove as much blood as possible with wet cloths before disinfecting.
• Assess the surface to see whether it will be damaged by a bleach and water solution.
• For cement, metal and other surfaces that can tolerate a stronger bleach solution, flood the
area with an approximately 5000 parts per million (ppm) solution of sodium hypochlorite
(1:10 dilution of a 5.25% chlorine bleach to water). This is the preferred concentration for
large spills (44). Leave the area wet for 10 minutes.
• For surfaces that may be corroded or discoloured by a strong bleach, clean carefully to
remove all visible stains. Make a weaker solution and leave it in contact for a longer period
of time. For example, an approximately 525 ppm solution (1:100 dilution of 5.25% bleach)
is effective.
• Prepare bleach solution fresh daily and keep it in a closed container because it degrades
over time and in contact with the sun.
If a person was exposed to blood through nonintact skin, mucous membranes or a puncture
wound, complete an incident report, as described in WHO best practices for injections and
related procedures toolkit. For transportation of blood samples outside a hospital, equip the
transportation vehicle with a blood spillage kit. Annex H has further information on dealing with
a blood spillage.
18 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
5. Apply a tourniquet, about 4–5 finger widths
above the selected venepuncture site.
4. Select the site, preferably at the antecubital
area (i.e. the bend of the elbow). Warming the
arm with a hot pack, or hanging the hand down
may make it easier to see the veins. Palpate
the area to locate the anatomic landmarks.
DO NOT touch the site once alcohol or other
antiseptic has been applied.
2.3 Illustrations for best practices in phlebotomy
Figure 2. 1 Venepuncture in adults
1. Assemble equipment and include needle and syringe or vacuum tube, depending on which is to be used.
2. Perform hand hygiene (if using soap and water, 3. Identify and prepare the patient.
dry hands with single-use towels).
Ulnar nerve
Basilic vein
Median
cubital vein
Ulnar artery
2 Best practices in phlebotomy 19
6. Ask the patient to form a fist
so that the veins are more
prominent.
7. Put on well-fitting, non-sterile
gloves.
8. Disinfect the site using 70%
isopropyl alcohol for 30 seconds
and allow to dry completely
(30 seconds).
9. Anchor the vein by holding
the patient’s arm and
placing a thumb BELOW the
venepuncture site.
10. Enter the vein swiftly at a
30 degree angle.
11. Once sufficient blood has been
collected, release the tourniquet
BEFORE withdrawing the needle.
12. Withdraw the needle gently
and then give the patient a
clean gauze or dry cotton-wool
ball to apply to the site with
gentle pressure.
13. Discard the used needle and
syringe or blood-sampling
device into a punctureresistant
container.
14. Check the label and forms for
accuracy.
15. Discard sharps and broken
glass into the sharps
container. Place items that can
drip blood or body fluids into
the infectious waste.
16. Remove gloves and place
them in the general waste.
Perform hand hygiene. If using
soap and water, dry hands
with single-use towels.
20 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Figure 2. 2 Filling tubes
1. If the tube does not have a
rubber stopper, press the
plunger in slowly to reduce
haemolysis (this is safer than
removing the needle).
2. Place the stopper in the tube. 3. Following laboratory instructions,
invert the sample gently to mix
the additives with the blood
before dispatch.
3 Blood-sampling systems 21
3 Blood-sampling systems
Users of these guidelines should read Chapter 2 before reading the information given below.
This chapter covers background information (Section 3.1), practical guidance (Section 3.2) and
illustrations (Section 3.3) relevant to closed and open blood-sampling systems.
Several blood-sampling systems are available for phlebotomy. The system most appropriate
for the procedure should be chosen. Annex C provides detailed information on all the systems
available for drawing blood, and outlines the advantages and disadvantages of each device.
3.1 Background information on blood-sampling systems
3.1.1 Closed systems
Closed systems for blood sampling are preferable because they have proven to be safer than open
systems (23).
Needle and syringe
The use of a hypodermic needle and syringe is the most common means of blood sampling.
Choice of gauge
If the needle is too large for the vein for which it is intended, it will tear the vein and cause
bleeding (haematoma); if the needle is too small, it will damage the blood cells during sampling,
and laboratory tests that require whole blood cells, or haemoglobin and free plasma, will be
invalid.
Blood collection for transfusion requires a larger gauge than is used for blood drawing.
Vacuum extraction systems
The use of vacuum extraction tube systems as closed systems for blood collecting reduces the
risk of direct exposure to blood and has made it easier to take multiple samples from a single
venepuncture.
Vacuum extraction systems are widely available in most well-resourced countries. These are
recommended, but users should check their own country’s recommendations. Although vacuum
extraction systems are safe, training and skill is required for their use.
Double-ended needles are available in several recommended gauge sizes. The end covered by
a rubber cuff is screwed into the barrel (also known as the tube holder, evacuated tube needle
holder or bulldog). A thread separates the two ends, and this is where the barrel is screwed into
place. The barrel holds the sample collection tube in place and protects the phlebotomist from
direct contact with blood. The sample tube is under vacuum. Once the needle is in the vein, the
tube is pressed on to the needle and the blood is drawn automatically into the sample tube by
vacuum until the required amount is collected. This system comes complete with needle, barrel
and the laboratory sample tubes with appropriately coloured tops for different types of samples.
Tubes for adult and paediatric specimens are available.
Discard the barrel and syringe as a single entity where possible. If there is a need to reuse the
barrel, use a one-hand scoop technique (Annex G) to cover the sharp end of the needle and thus
to safely remove the needle from the barrel. Alternately, use a sharps container with a needle
removal hold, again employing a one-handed technique.
22 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Some systems have a mechanism that can be activated once the needle has been used; the
mechanism retracts the used needle into the barrel and snaps it shut. Others have a quickrelease
mechanism to dislodge the used needle into the sharps container.
Vacuum systems may also be used with a winged butterfly needle and luer-lock connectors.
Winged butterfly needles are also available with safety-engineered devices.
The sharps container must be within arm’s reach and clearly visible, to ensure safe disposal of
sharps.
3.1.2 Open systems
Open systems include hypodermic needle and syringes, as well as winged steel needles attached
to a syringe.
3.2 Practical guidance on blood-sampling systems
3.2.1 Needle and syringe
To use a needle and syringe system:
• open the packaging of the hypodermic needle from the hub end (back of the needle),
keeping it capped;
• open the sterile packaging of the syringe from the plunger end (back of the syringe),
keeping the nozzle protected in the packaging;
• carefully remove the syringe from the packaging and insert the nozzle of the syringe firmly
into the exposed hub of the capped hypodermic needle;
• leave the needle and syringe in place until ready for use.
3.2.2 Choice of gauge
Choose the gauge of hypodermic needle that fits comfortably into the most prominent vein with
little discomfort (Table 3.1).
Table 3.1 Recommended needle gauge, length and device for routine injection and phlebotomy
procedures for different age groups
Patient population
Needle
gauge Adult
Paediatric,
elderly, small veins Neonatal Procedure
16–18 Blood donation
19–20 NA NA NA
21 (1–1.5 inch or
2.54 cm)
NA NA
22 (1 inch or
2.54 cm)
(1 inch or
2.54 cm)
NA
23 (1–1.5 inch or
2.54 cm)
(Winged set
[butterfly]; 0.5 inch
or 0.75 cm)
(Winged set
[butterfly]; 0.5 inch
or 0.75 cm)
NA, not applicable.
3 Blood-sampling systems 23
3.3 Illustrations for blood-sampling systems
Figure 3.1 Blood-sampling systems
Needle and syringe system
Remove the syringe from the
packaging and insert the nozzle
of the syringe firmly into the
exposed hub of the capped
hypodermic needle.
Vacuum extraction system
The barrel holds the sample
collection tube in place and
protects the phlebotomist from
direct contact with blood. Do not
push the laboratory tube onto the
needle inside the barrel until the
needle is in the blood vessel, or
the vacuum will be lost.
Winged butterfly system
(vacuum extraction)
A vacuum system combined with
a winged butterfly needle.
Do not push the laboratory tube
onto the needle inside the barrel
until the winged needle is inside
the blood vessel or the vacuum
will be lost.
Winged butterfly system
(syringe)
A syringe combined with a
winged butterfly needle.
4 Venepuncture for blood donation 25
4 Venepuncture for blood donation
The information given here supplements that given in Chapters 2 and 3. Users of these
guidelines should read Chapters 2 and 3 before reading the information given below. This
chapter covers background information (Section 4.1) and practical guidance (Section 4.2)
relevant to venepuncture for blood donation.
4.1 Background information on venepuncture for blood
donation
Blood banks use various processes to try to prevent infections that can be transmitted by
infected blood donation. One important measure to prevent infection is to recruit donors from
populations that are known to have low rates of infection for bloodborne diseases, such as
voluntary, unpaid donors and people with no history of intravenous drug use. A second measure
is to ask donors a series of additional screening questions (these will vary by region) to help
identify those who may be at higher risk of infection. Phlebotomists must adhere strictly to the
rules for including and excluding blood donors. A third measure is to test donated blood for
infections common in the area before processing it for use for various therapeutic purposes.
The process for collecting blood from donors is similar to that used for blood sampling; however,
a few additional measures are required for collection of donated blood. These measures are
primarily to ensure patient safety, but also to minimize exogenous contamination of a donated
blood unit or its derived components, particularly contamination from the skin flora of the
donor’s arm. Because of the volume or blood collected and the length of storage, pathogens can
multiply during storage. Safe collection ensures that the blood products are safe for therapeutic
use throughout their shelf life.
Skin flora is a common source of contaminants; it is therefore important to use an effective
antiseptic on the donor’s arm before blood donation. Transfusion with blood components that
are contaminated with exogenous bacteria or other agents can cause fatal complications
(30, 45). Studies on the topic have been inconclusive (46); however, based on available literature
and expert opinion, the recommended option for skin antisepsis for blood donation is the onestep
application of a combination of 2% chlorhexidine gluconate and 70% isopropyl alcohol for
30 seconds, followed by 30 seconds drying time (47–49).
Blood donations should be collected only by trained and qualified blood transfusion services
personnel.
4.1.1 Minimum requirements for venepuncture for blood donation
The relevant guidance given in Chapter 2 on planning, location and infection prevention and
control practices should be followed, as should the guidance in Chapter 3 on closed systems.
Additional requirements for a collection system for blood donation are listed below.
• Equipment:
– All equipment used for collection of blood donations should be regularly calibrated,
maintained and serviced, as required. Such equipment includes blood pressure
monitors, scales, donor couches or chairs, blood collection monitors or mixers, blood
bag tube sealers, blood transportation boxes and blood bank refrigerators.
– Furniture and equipment in the area of blood donation and processing should be made
of cleanable surfaces (e.g. vinyl rather than fabric). Containers used to transport supplies
and specimens should also be cleanable by disinfectants such as sodium hypochlorite
bleach solutions. Fabric or textile carriers should be machine washable.
26 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
– A closed collection system with a sterile blood collection bag containing anticoagulant,
and with an integrally attached tube and needle should be used. Some bags include
diversion pouches to sequester the first 20 ml of blood collected, to minimize
contamination from skin flora and the skin core (50). If blood for haemoglobin testing is
gathered with a capillary stick, a single-use sterile lancet should be used and then placed
immediately in a safety box.
• Location:
– Premises should be of sufficient size for efficient operations, with separate areas for
clean and dirty processes, clean running water, and surfaces cleanable by disinfectants.
– Floors should not be carpeted.
– Waiting areas should be outside the collection area, to minimize the risk of respiratory
pathogens for workers.
– All fixed and mobile blood donation sites should be safe, clean, hygienic and tidy, and
should meet defined standards of environmental safety.
– The donation sites should be organized in a way that ensures the safety of blood donors,
staff and donated blood units, and avoids errors in the blood donation process.
4.1.2 Before a blood donation
WHO has developed a set of basic requirements for blood transfusion services, which cover the
steps to take before donation (51). Blood donation should be voluntary; it should not involve
duress, coercion or remuneration. Also, potential blood donors should be selected carefully,
according to the national criteria for donor selection.
Before a person donates blood (52):
• the potential donor should be given pre-donation information, advice and counselling
about the process of blood donation;
• a relevant history of the donor should be taken, covering health and high-risk behaviour,
and including
– history of mastectomy (blood should be taken from the arm opposite the site of surgery)
(48, 53);
– current and recent medications or chronic infections;
– history of prolonged bleeding or a past diagnosis of bleeding disorders;
– history of previous donations, to ensure the waiting period is respected;
• a preliminary physical check-up of the donor should be done, including weight, blood
pressure, signs of infection or scarring at potential sites;
• the donor should be offered fluids, to help reduce the risk of fainting after blood donation
(54);
• the person should provide informed written consent, based on the national requirements.
4 Venepuncture for blood donation 27
4.2 Practical guidance on venepuncture for blood donation
4.2.1 Collecting blood
For collection of blood for donation, use the procedure detailed in Chapter 2 for blood sampling
(e.g. for hand hygiene and glove use), as far as it is relevant, and follow the six steps given below.
Step1 – Identify donor and label blood collection bag and test tubes
• Ask the donor to state their full name.
• Ensure that:
– the blood collection bag is of the correct type;
– the labels on the blood collection bag and all its satellite bags, sample tubes and donor
records have the correct patient name and number;
– the information on the labels matches with the donor’s information.
Step 2 – Select the vein
• Select a large, firm vein, preferably in the antecubital fossa, from an area free from skin
lesions or scars.
• Apply a tourniquet or blood pressure cuff inflated to 40–60 mm Hg, to make the vein more
prominent.
• Ask the donor to open and close the hand a few times.
• Once the vein is selected, release the pressure device or tourniquet before the skin site is
prepared.
Step 3 – Disinfect the skin
• If the site selected for venepuncture is visibly dirty, wash the area with soap and water, and
then wipe it dry with single-use towels.
• One-step procedure (recommended – takes about one minute):
– use a product combining 2% chlorhexidine gluconate in 70% isopropyl alcohol;
– cover the whole area and ensure that the skin area is in contact with the disinfectant for
at least 30 seconds;
– allow the area to dry completely, or for a minimum of 30 seconds by the clock.
• Two-step procedure (if chlorhexidine gluconate in 70% isopropyl alcohol is not available,
use the following procedure – takes about two minutes):
– step 1 – use 70% isopropyl alcohol;
– cover the whole area and ensure that the skin area is in contact with the disinfectant for
at least 30 seconds;
– allow the area to dry completely (about 30 seconds);
– step 2 – use tincture of iodine (more effective than povidine iodine) or chlorhexidine
(2%);
– cover the whole area and ensure that the skin area is in contact with the disinfectant for
at least 30 seconds;
– allow the area to dry completely (about 30 seconds).
• Whichever procedure is used, DO NOT touch the venepuncture site once the skin has been
disinfected.
28 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Step 4 – Perform the venepuncture
Perform venepuncture using a smooth, clean entry with the needle, as described in step 6 of
Section 2.2.3. Take into account the points given below, which are specific to blood donation.
• In general, use a 16-gauge needle (see Table 3.1 in Chapter 3), which is usually attached to
the blood collection bag. Use of a retractable needle or safety needle with a needle cover is
preferred if available, but all should be cut off at the end of the procedure (as described in
step 6, below) rather than recapped.
• Ask the donor to open and close the fist slowly every 10–12 seconds during collection.
• Remove the tourniquet when the blood flow is established or after 2 minutes, whichever
comes first.
Step 5 – Monitor the donor and the donated unit
• Closely monitor the donor and the injection site throughout the donation process – look
for:
– sweating, palor or complaints of feeling faint that may precede fainting;
– development of a haematoma at the injection site;
– changes in blood flow that may indicate the needle has moved in the vein, and needs to
be repositioned.
• About every 30 seconds during the donation, mix the collected blood gently with the
anticoagulant, either manually or by continuous mechanical mixing.
Step 6 – Remove the needle and collect samples
• Cut off the needle using a sterile pair of scissors.
• Collect blood samples for laboratory testing.
4.2.2 After a blood donation
Donor care
After the blood has been collected:
• ask the donor to remain in the chair and relax for a few minutes;
• inspect the venepuncture site; if it is not bleeding, apply a bandage to the site; if it is
bleeding, apply further pressure;
• ask the donor to sit up slowly and ask how the person is feeling;
• before the donor leaves the donation room, ensure that the person can stand up without
dizziness and without a drop in blood pressure;
• offer the donor some refreshments.
Blood unit and samples
• Transfer the blood unit to a proper storage container according to the blood centre
requirements and the product (55–58).
• Ensure that collected blood samples are stored and delivered to the laboratory with
completed documentation, at the recommended temperature, and in a leak-proof, closed
container (55, 57, 58).
4 Venepuncture for blood donation 29
4.2.3 Adverse events in blood donation
Be aware of possible adverse events, and the actions to take if these occur (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Adverse events in blood donation
Adverse
event Incidence Cause Management Remarks
Haematoma 2–3% • Poor or failed
venepuncture
• Skin pierced at too
great an angle – and
exiting vein
• Needle puncturing
the vein twice during
the donation
• Inadequate pressure
after the donation
• Apply pressure and a firm
bandage
• Advise donor to move arm
freely but to avoid heavy
lifting
• Apologize, and reassure
the donor
Give relevant
contact information
to donor in case
the donor has any
further inquiries
Vasovagal
reaction
or faint,
due to a
hypothalamic
response
resulting in
bradycardia,
vomiting,
sweating,
arterial
dilatation and
a low blood
pressure
1% of all
donations
(but more
frequent in
first-time
donors –
1.7% versus
0.19%)
• Anxiety
• Lowered blood
volume and other
associated causes:
– hypoglycaemia
– lack of fluids
– poor sleep
• Atmosphere in
donation room (hot
or humid)
Signs and symptoms
• Staring
• Sighing
• Pallor or sweating
• Slow pulse
• Drop in blood
pressure
• Vomiting
• Loss of consciousness
(occasionally)
• Convulsions (rare)
Mild vasovagal reaction
• Discontinue donation
• Recline chair
• Loosen clothes
• Monitor blood pressure
and pulse
• Reassure donor
• Give fluids to the donor to
drink (recovery is usually
rapid)
Severe vasovagal reaction
• Call physician
• If the donor becomes
unconscious, put the
person in recovery
position (i.e. head to the
side and chin up) and
ensure that airways are
clear
• Occasionally, severe faint
with delayed recovery, or
epileptiform episode with
or without incontinence,
might occur; this is
usually an anoxic fit
rather than epilepsy
• In the case of an
epileptiform fit, generally,
do not report to donor
because it may cause
unnecessary anxiety
• If incontinence occurs,
then inform the donor and
deal with privately
Faints
• These are usually self
limiting and do not require
investigation because
they have no underlying
pathology
Care of the donor
The physician will:
• explain to the
donor the nature
of what has
happened
• reassure the
person that this is
only related to the
donation process
Future donations
• Severe faints –
person should not
donate again
• Mild faints –
person may
donate, but
defer if develops
another fainting
attack
30 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Table 4.1 continued
Adverse
event Incidence Cause Management Remarks
Delayed faint
(syncope)
1 in 10,000
donors
• Physical stress
• Inadequate fluid
intake
• Cause unknown
Occurs 1–4 hours
after donation, usually
outside the blood bank
Hot drinks or water before
donating blood; sitting in
a supine position, audio
or visual distraction; and
minimal pain and stress
during blood donation
Try to find cause
Future donations
May donate, but if
develops a second
time, then defer
Arterial
puncture
1 in
30,000–
50,000
• Brachial artery
sometimes lies
anatomically very
close to the vein
• Detected by
observing that the
blood collected is
bright red and has a
rapid flow
• May result in late
complications such as
arteriovenous fistulae
• Discontinue donation
or continue if identified
towards the completion of
the donation
• Call the donor care
physician
• Apply firm pressure (by
the nurse or medical
staff), for at least 15
minutes
• Apply pressure bandage
and check the radial pulse
• Inform and reassure
donor, and explain
that the puncture is
unlikely to have serious
consequences, but that
bad bruising may occur,
and healing takes about
10–14 days
Give relevant
contact information
to donor in case
the person has any
further inquiries
Nerve
damage
• Nerve endings
brushed during
venepuncture
• Pressure from
haematoma
Symptoms and signs
• Pain or parasthesia
• Motor or sensory loss
• Recovery is usually
spontaneous and rapid
within 24 hours (in rare
cases, up to 6 months)
• Refer the donor to the
physician to explain
and reassure the donor,
and refer the donor to a
neurologist if the damage
is severe
Give relevant
contact information
to donor in case
the donor has any
further inquiries
Sources: (8–10, 54).
5 Arterial blood sampling 31
5 Arterial blood sampling
The information given here supplements that given in Chapters 2 and 3. Users of these
guidelines should read Chapters 2 and 3 before reading the information given below. This
chapter covers background information (Section 5.1), practical guidance (Section 5.2) and
illustrations (Section 5.3) relevant to arterial blood sampling.
5.1 Background information on arterial blood sampling
An arterial blood sample is collected from an artery, primarily to determine arterial blood gases.
Arterial blood sampling should only be performed by health workers for whom the procedure
is in the legal scope of practice for their position in their country and who have demonstrated
proficiency after formal training.
The sample can be obtained either through a catheter placed in an artery, or by using a needle
and syringe to puncture an artery. These syringes are pre-heparinized and handled to minimize
air exposure that will alter the blood gas values. This chapter describes only the procedure for a
radial artery blood draw.
5.1.1 Choice of site
Several different arteries can be used for blood collection. The first choice is the radial artery,
which is located on the thumb side of the wrist; because of its small size, use of this artery
requires extensive skill in arterial blood sampling. Alternative sites for access are brachial or
femoral arteries, but these have several disadvantages in that they:
• may be harder to locate, because they are less superficial than the radial artery;
• have poor collateral circulation;
• are surrounded by structures that could be damaged by faulty technique.
5.1.2 Complications related to arterial blood sampling
There are several potential complications related to arterial blood sampling. The points below
list some of the complications related to the procedure, and how they can be prevented (59).
• Arteriospasm or involuntary contraction of the artery may be prevented simply by helping
the patient relax; this can be achieved, for example, by explaining the procedure and
positioning the person comfortably.
• Haematoma or excessive bleeding can be prevented by inserting the needle without
puncturing the far side of the vessel and by applying pressure immediately after blood is
drawn. Due to the higher pressure present in arteries, pressure should be applied for a
longer time than when sampling from a vein, and should be supervised more closely, to
check for cessation of bleeding.
• Nerve damage can be prevented by choosing an appropriate sampling site and avoiding
redirection of the needle.
• Fainting or a vasovagal response can be prevented by ensuring that the patient is supine
(lying down on their back) with feet elevated before beginning the blood draw. Patients
requiring arterial blood sampling are usually inpatients or in the emergency ward, so will
generally already be lying in a hospital bed. Children may feel a loss of control and fight
more if placed in a supine position; in such cases, it may be preferable to have the child
sitting on the parent’s lap, so that the parent can gently restrain the child.
• Other problems can include a drop in blood pressure, complaints of feeling faint, sweating
or pallor that may precede a loss of consciousness.
32 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
5.1.3 Sampling errors
Inappropriate collection and handling of arterial blood specimens can produce incorrect results.
Reasons for an inaccurate blood result include:
• presence of air in the sample;
• collection of venous rather than arterial blood;
• an improper quantity of heparin in the syringe, or improper mixing after blood is drawn;
• a delay in specimen transportation.
5.2 Practical guidance on arterial blood sampling
5.2.1 Equipment and supplies
Assemble the relevant items described in Section 2.2.3, plus the following specimen collection
equipment and supplies:
• pre-heparinized syringe;
• needles (20, 23 and 25 gauge, of different lengths) – choose a size that is appropriate for the
site (smaller gauges are more likely to lyse the specimen);
• a safety syringe with a needle cover that allows the syringe to be capped before transport,
without manually recapping (this is best practice for radial blood sampling);
• a bandage to cover the puncture site after collection;
• a container with crushed ice for transportation of the sample to the laboratory (if the
analysis is not done at the point of care);
• where applicable, local anesthetic and an additional single-use sterile syringe and needle.
5.2.2 Procedure for arterial blood sampling using radial artery
For sampling from the radial artery using a needle and syringe, follow the steps outlined below.
1. Approach the patient, introduce yourself and ask the patient to state their full name.
2. Place the patient on their back, lying flat. Ask the nurse for assistance if the patient’s
position needs to be altered to make them more comfortable. If the patient is clenching
their fist, holding their breath or crying, this can change breathing and thus alter the test
result.
3. Locate the radial artery by performing an Allen test (see Annex I) for collateral circulation.
If the initial test fails to locate the radial artery, repeat the test on the other hand. Once
a site is identified, note anatomic landmarks to be able to find the site again. If it will be
necessary to palpate the site again, put on sterile gloves.
4. Perform hand hygiene, clear off a bedside work area and prepare supplies. Put on an
impervious gown or apron, and face protection, if exposure to blood is anticipated.
5. Disinfect the sampling site on the patient with 70% alcohol and allow it to dry.
6. If the needle and syringe are not preassembled, assemble the needle and heparinized
syringe and pull the syringe plunger to the required fill level recommended by the local
laboratory.
7. Holding the syringe and needle like a dart, use the index finger to locate the pulse again,
inform the patient that the skin is about to be pierced then insert the needle at a 45 degree
angle, approximately 1 cm distal to (i.e. away from) the index finger, to avoid contaminating
the area where the needle enters the skin.
5 Arterial blood sampling 33
8. Advance the needle into the radial artery until a blood flashback appears, then allow the
syringe to fill to the appropriate level. DO NOT pull back the syringe plunger.
9. Withdraw the needle and syringe; place a clean, dry piece of gauze or cotton wool over the
site and have the patient or an assistant apply firm pressure for sufficient time to stop the
bleeding. Check whether bleeding has stopped after 2–3 minutes. Five minutes or more
may be needed for patients who have high blood pressure or a bleeding disorder, or are
taking anticoagulants.
10. Activate the mechanisms of a safety needle to cover the needle before placing it in the ice
cup. In the absence of a safety-engineered device, use a one-hand scoop technique (as
explained in Annex G) to recap the needle after removal.
11. Expel air bubbles, cap the syringe and roll the specimen between the hands to gently mix
it. Cap the syringe to prevent contact between the arterial blood sample and the air, and to
prevent leaking during transport to the laboratory.
12. Label the sample syringe.
13. Dispose appropriately of all used material and personal protective equipment.
14. Remove gloves and wash hands thoroughly with soap and water, then dry using single-use
towels; alternatively, use alcohol rub solution.
15. Check the patient site for bleeding (if necessary, apply additional pressure) and thank the
patient.
16. Transport the sample immediately to the laboratory, following laboratory handling
procedures.
5.3 Illustrations for arterial blood sampling
Figure 5.1 Arterial blood sampling
Locate artery and take a sample
6 Paediatric and neonatal blood sampling 35
6 Paediatric and neonatal blood sampling
The information given here supplements that given in Chapters 2 and 3. Users of these
guidelines should read Chapters 2 and 3 before reading the information given below. This
chapter covers background information (Section 6.1), practical guidance (Section 6.2) and
illustrations (Section 6.3) relevant to paediatric and neonatal blood sampling.
6.1 Background information on paediatric and neonatal blood
sampling
This chapter discusses aspects specific to paediatric and neonatal blood sampling (60, 61).
Anyone taking blood from children and neonates must be well trained and practiced in
venepuncture techniques. A uniform sampling technique is important to reduce pain and
psychological trauma.
6.1.1 Choice of procedure and site
The choice of site and procedure (venous site, finger-prick or heel-prick – also referred to as
“capillary sampling” or “skin puncture”) will depend on the volume of blood needed for the
procedure and the type of laboratory test to be done. Venepuncture is the method of choice
for blood sampling in term neonates (62, 63); however, it requires an experienced and trained
phlebotomist. If a trained phlebotomist is not available, the physician may need to draw the
specimen. Section 7.1 provides information on when a capillary blood specimen from a fingerprick
or a heel-prick is appropriate. The blood from a capillary specimen is similar to an arterial
specimen in oxygen content, and is suitable for only a limited number of tests because of its
higher likelihood of contamination with skin flora and smaller total volume.
Finger and heel-prick
Whether to select a finger-prick or a heel-prick will depend on the age and weight of the child.
Section 7.1 explains which procedure to select, based on these two elements.
Patient immobilization is crucial to the safety of the paediatric and neonatal patient undergoing
phlebotomy, and to the success of the procedure. A helper is essential for properly immobilizing
the patient for venepuncture or finger-prick, as described in Section 6.2.
6.2 Practical guidance on paediatric and neonatal blood
sampling
6.2.1 Patient identification
For paediatric and neonatal patients, use the methods described below to ensure that patients
are correctly identified before taking blood.
• Use a wrist or foot band only if it is attached to the patient; DO NOT use the bed number or
a wrist band that is attached to the bed or cot.
• If a parent or legal guardian is present, ask that person for the child’s first and last names.
• Check that the name, date of birth and hospital or file number are written on the laboratory
form, and match them to the identity of the patient.
36 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
6.2.2 Venepuncture
Venepuncture is the preferred method of blood sampling for term neonates, and causes less pain
than heel-pricks (64).
Equipment and supplies for paediatric patients.
• Use a winged steel needle, preferably 23 or 23 gauge, with an extension tube (a butterfly):
– a void gauges of 25 or more because these may be associated with an increased risk of
haemolysis;
– u se a butterfly with either a syringe or an evacuated tube with an adaptor; a butterfly can
provide easier access and movement, but movement of the attached syringe may make it
difficult to draw blood.
• Use a syringe with a barrel volume of 1–5 ml, depending on collection needs; the vacuum
produced by drawing using a larger syringe will often collapse the vein.
• When using an evacuated tube, choose one that collects a small volume (1 ml or 5 ml) and
has a low vacuum; this helps to avoid collapse of the vein and may decrease haemolysis.
• Where possible, use safety equipment with needle covers or features that minimize blood
exposure. Auto-disable (AD) syringes are designed for injection, and are not appropriate for
phlebotomy.
Preparation
Ask whether the parent would like to help by holding the child. If the parent wishes to help,
provide full instructions on how and where to hold the child; if the parent prefers not to help,
ask for assistance from another phlebotomist.
Immobilize the child as described below.
• Designate one phlebotomist as the technician, and another phlebotomist or a parent to
immobilize the child.
• Ask the two adults to stand on opposite sides of an examination table.
• Ask the immobilizer to:
– s tretch an arm across the table and place the child on its back, with its head on top of the
outstretched arm;
– p ull the child close, as if the person were cradling the child;
– grasp the child’s elbow in the outstretched hand;
– use their other arm to reach across the child and grasp its wrist in a palm-up position
(reaching across the child anchors the child’s shoulder, and thus prevents twisting or
rocking movements; also, a firm grasp on the wrist effectively provides the phlebotomist
with a “tourniquet”).
If necessary, take the following steps to improve the ease of venepuncture.
• Ask the parent to rhythmically tighten and release the child’s wrist, to ensure that there is
an adequate flow of blood.
• Keep the child warm, which may increase the rate of blood flow by as much as sevenfold
(65), by removing as few of the child’s clothes as possible and, in the case of an infant, by:
– swaddling in a blanket; and
– having the parent or caregiver hold the infant, leaving only the extremity of the site of
venepuncture exposed.
• Warm the area of puncture with warm cloths to help dilate the blood vessels.
• Use a transilluminator or pocket pen light to display the dorsal hand veins and the veins of
the antecubital fossa.
6 Paediatric and neonatal blood sampling 37
Drawing blood
• Follow the procedures given in Section 2.2.3 for:
– h and hygiene;
– a dvance preparation;
– p atient identification and positioning;
– s kin antisepsis (but DO NOT use chlorhexidine on children under 2 months of age).
• Once the infant or child is immobilized, puncture the skin 3–5 mm distal to (i.e. away from)
the vein (66); this allows good access without pushing the vein away.
• If the needle enters alongside the vein rather than into it, withdraw the needle slightly
without removing it completely, and angle it into the vessel.
• Draw blood slowly and steadily.
6.2.3 Finger and heel-prick
See Section 7.2, which describes the steps for both finger and heel-pricks, for paediatric and
neonatal patients, and for adults.
Select the proper lancet length for the area of puncture, as described in Section 7.2.
6.3 Illustrations for paediatric and neonatal blood sampling
Figure 6.1 Paediatric and neonatal venepuncture
1. Use a winged steel needle,
usually 23 or 25 gauge, with
an extension tube (butterfly).
Keep the tube and needle
separate until the needle is in
the vein.
2. Collect supplies and equipment. 3. Perform hand hygiene (if
using soap and water, dry
hands with single-use towels).
38 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
4. Immobilize the baby or child. 5. Put the tourniquet on the
patient about two finger widths
above the venepuncture site.
6. Put on well-fitting, non-sterile
gloves.
7. Attach the end of the winged
infusion set to the end of the
vacuum tube and insert the
collection tube into the holder
until the tube reaches the
needle.
8. Remove the plastic sleeve
from the end of the butterfly.
9. Disinfect the collection site
and allow to dry.
10. Use a thumb to draw the skin
tight, about two finger widths
below the venepuncture site.
11. Push the vacuum tube
completely onto the needle.
12. Blood should begin to flow into
the tube.
13. Fill the tube until it is full or until
the vacuum is exhausted; if
filling multiple tubes, carefully
remove the full tube and replace
with another tube, taking care
not to move the needle in the
vein.
14. After the required amount
of blood has been collected,
release the tourniquet.
6 Paediatric and neonatal blood sampling 39
15. Place dry gauze over the
venepuncture site and slowly
withdraw the needle.
16. Ask the parent to continue
applying mild pressure.
17. Remove the butterfly from the
vacuum tube holder.
18. Dispose of the butterfly in a
sharps container.
19. Properly dispose of all
20. Label the tube with the patient
contaminated supplies.
identification number and date.
21. Put an adhesive bandage on
the patient if necessary.
22. Remove gloves, dispose
of them appropriately and
perform hand hygiene (if using
soap and water, dry hands
with single-use towels).
7 Capillary sampling 41
7 Capillary sampling
The information given here supplements that given in Chapter 2. Users of these guidelines
should read Chapter 2 before reading the information given below. This chapter covers
background information (Section 7.1), practical guidance (Section 7.2) and illustrations
(Section 7.3) relevant to capillary sampling.
Capillary sampling from a finger, heel or (rarely) an ear lobe may be performed on patients of
any age, for specific tests that require small quantities of blood. However, because the procedure
is commonly used in paediatric patients, Sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2 focus particularly on paediatric
capillary sampling.
7.1 Background information on capillary sampling
7.1.1 Choice of site
Adult patients
The finger is usually the preferred site for capillary testing in an adult patient. The sides of the
heel are only used in paediatric and neonatal patients. Ear lobes are sometimes used in mass
screening or research studies.
Paediatric and neonatal patients
Selection of a site for capillary sampling in a paediatric patient is usually based on the age
and weight of the patient. If the child is walking, the child’s feet may have calluses that hinder
adequate blood flow. Table 7.1 shows the conditions influencing the choice of heel or finger-prick.
Table 7.1 Conditions influencing the choice of heel or finger-prick
Condition Heel-prick Finger-prick
Age Birth to about 6 months Over 6 months
Weight From 3–10 kg, approximately Greater than 10 kg
Placement of lancet On the medial or lateral plantar
surface
On the side of the ball of the finger
perpendicular to the lines of the
fingerprint
Recommended finger Not applicable Second and third finger (i.e. middle
and ring finger); avoid the thumb
and index finger because of calluses,
and avoid the little finger because the
tissue is thin
Specimens requiring a skin puncture are best obtained after ensuring that a baby is warm, as
discussed in Section 6.2.2.
42 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
7.1.2 Selecting the length of lancet
Adult patients
A lancet slightly shorter than the estimated depth needed should be used because the pressure
compresses the skin; thus, the puncture depth will be slightly deeper than the lancet length. In
one study of 52 subjects, pain increased with penetration depth, and thicker lancets were slightly
more painful than thin ones (67). However, blood volumes increased with the lancet penetration
and depth.
Lengths vary by manufacturer (from 0.85 mm for neonates up to 2.2 mm). In a finger-prick, the
depth should not go beyond 2.4 mm, so a 2.2 mm lancet is the longest length typically used.
Paediatric and neonatal patients
In heel-pricks, the depth should not go beyond 2.4 mm. For premature neonates, a 0.85 mm
lancet is available.
The distance for a 7 pound (3 kg) baby from outer skin surface to bone is:
• medial and lateral heel – 3.32 mm;
• posterior heel – 2.33 mm (this site should be avoided, to reduce the risk of hitting bone);
• toe – 2.19 mm.
The recommended depth for a finger-prick is:
• for a child over 6 months and below 8 years – 1.5 mm;
• for a child over 8 years – 2.4 mm.
Too much compression should be avoided, because this may cause a deeper puncture than is
needed to get good flow.
7.1.3 Order of draw
With skin punctures, the haematology specimen is collected first, followed by the chemistry
and blood bank specimens. This order of drawing is essential to minimize the effects of platelet
clumping. The order used for skin punctures is the reverse of that used for venepuncture
collection. If more than two specimens are needed, venepuncture may provide more accurate
laboratory results.
7.1.4 Complications
Complications that can arise in capillary sampling include:
• collapse of veins if the tibial artery is lacerated from puncturing the medial aspect of the
heel;
• osteomyelitis of the heel bone (calcaneus) (68);
• nerve damage if the fingers of neonates are punctured (69);
• haematoma and loss of access to the venous branch used;
• scarring;
• localized or generalized necrosis (a long-term effect);
• skin breakdown from repeated use of adhesive strips (particularly in very young or very
elderly patients) – this can be avoided if sufficient pressure is applied and the puncture site
is observed after the procedure.
7 Capillary sampling 43
7.2 Practical guidance on capillary sampling
7.2.1 Selection of site and lancet
• Using the guidance given in Section 7.1, decide whether to use a finger or heel-prick, and
decide on an appropriate size of lancet.
• DO NOT use a surgical blade to perform a skin puncture.
• DO NOT puncture the skin more than once with the same lancet, or use a single puncture
site more than once, because this can lead to bacterial contamination and infection.
7.2.2 Procedure for capillary sampling
Adult patients
Prepare the skin
• Apply alcohol to the entry site and allow to air dry (see Section 2.2.3).
• Puncture the skin with one quick, continuous and deliberate stroke, to achieve a good flow
of blood and to prevent the need to repeat the puncture.
• Wipe away the first drop of blood because it may be contaminated with tissue fluid or debris
(sloughing skin).
• Avoid squeezing the finger or heel too tightly because this dilutes the specimen with tissue
fluid (plasma) and increases the probability of haemolysis (60).
• When the blood collection procedure is complete, apply firm pressure to the site to stop the
bleeding.
Take laboratory samples in the correct order to minimize erroneous test results
• With skin punctures, collect the specimens in the order below, starting with haematology
specimens:
– h aematology specimens;
– c hemistry specimens;
– b lood bank specimens.
Paediatric and neonatal patients
Immobilize the child
• First immobilize the child by asking the parent to:
– s it on the phlebotomy chair with the child on the parent’s lap;
– i mmobilize the child’s lower extremities by positioning their legs around the child’s in a
cross-leg pattern;
– e xtend an arm across the child’s chest, and secure the child’s free arm by firmly tucking
it under their own;
– g rasp the child’s elbow (i.e. the skin puncture arm), and hold it securely;
– u se his or her other arm to firmly grasp the child’s wrist, holding it palm down.
Prepare the skin
• Prepare the skin as described above for adult patients.
• DO NOT use povidone iodine for a capillary skin puncture in paediatric and neonatal
patients; instead, use alcohol, as stated in the instructions for adults.
44 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Puncture the skin
• Puncture the skin as described above for adult patients.
• If necessary, take the following steps to improve the ease of obtaining blood by finger-prick
in paediatric and neonatal patients:
– a sk the parent to rhythmically tighten and release the child’s wrist, to ensure that there
is sufficient flow of blood;
– k eep the child warm by removing as few clothes as possible, swaddling an infant in a
blanket, and having a mother or caregiver hold an infant, leaving only the extremity of
the site of capillary sampling exposed.
• Avoid excessive massaging or squeezing of fingers because this will cause haemolysis and
impede blood flow (60).
Take laboratory samples in the order that prevent cross-contamination of sample tube additives
• As described above for adult patients, collect the capillary haematology specimen first,
followed by the chemistry and blood bank specimens.
• Clean up blood spills.
• Collect all equipment used in the procedure, being careful to remove all items from the
patient’s bed or cot; to avoid accidents, DO NOT leave anything behind.
Give follow-up care
There are two separate steps to patient follow-up care – data entry (i.e. completion of
requisitions), and provision of comfort and reassurance.
Data entry or completion of requisitions
• Record relevant information about the blood collection on the requisition and specimen
label; such information may include:
– d ate of collection;
– p atient name;
– p atient identity number;
– u nit location (nursery or hospital room number);
– t est or tests requested;
– a mount of blood collected (number of tubes);
– m ethod of collection (venepuncture or skin puncture);
– p hlebotomist’s initials.
Comfort and reassurance
Show the child that you care either verbally or physically. A simple gesture is all it takes to leave
the child on a positive note; for example, give verbal praise, a handshake, a fun sticker or a
simple pat on the back.
A small amount of sucrose (0.012–0.12 g) is safe and effective as an analgesic for newborns
undergoing venepuncture or capillary heel-pricks (70).
Unsuccessful attempts in paediatric patients
Adhere strictly to a limit on the number of times a paediatric patient may be stuck. If no
satisfactory sample has been collected after two attempts, seek a second opinion to decide
whether to make a further attempt, or cancel the tests.
7 Capillary sampling 45
7.3 Illustrations for capillary sampling
Figure 7.1 Capillary sampling
1. Lancet and collection tube. 2. Assemble equipment and
supplies.
3. Perform hand hygiene (if using
soap and water, dry hands
with single-use towels).
4. Put on well-fitting, non-sterile
gloves.
5. Select the site. Apply 70%
isopropyl alcohol and allow to
6. Puncture the skin.
air dry.
7. Wipe away the first drop of
blood.
8. Avoid squeezing the finger too
tightly.
9. Dispose of all sharps
appropriately.
11. Remove gloves and place in general waste.
Perform hand hygiene (if using soap and
water, dry hands with single-use towels).
10. Dispose of waste materials
appropriately.
PART III IMPLEMENTATION,
EVALUATION AND
MONITORING
8 Implementing best phlebotomy practices 49
8 Implementing best phlebotomy practices
8.1 Setting policies and standard operating procedures
As explained in Chapter 1, these best practice guidelines for phlebotomy extend the scope of the
two WHO/SIGN documents on related topics that are currently available (29, 30). At the heart
of the document are three principles.
• Standards of safe practice globally should be governed by evidence-based principles.
• Each phlebotomy service should, within its capacity, ultimately strive to achieve best
practices.
• Health workers should be protected and allowed to work in a safe environment, armed with
knowledge that reduces harm to themselves, patients and the community.
This chapter provides recommendations (in boxes) and gives further information for each
recommendation (text below the boxes).
8.2 Procurement
Recommendation on procurement (in conjunction with the WHO guiding
principle for injection device security (71)
Procurement agencies must ensure that all health-care facilities have
sufficient supplies of phlebotomy and personal protective equipment. Such
equipment must meet at least the minimum standards of sterility, quality and
safety to prevent complications related to unsafe practices.
To prevent the complications related to unsafe practices discussed in Parts I and II of this
document, equipment (including materials for hand hygiene) and personal protective clothing
must be routinely available in sufficient quantities. Items needed include:
• personal protective equipment;
• safe blood-sampling equipment of high quality, based on a cost–effectiveness analysis of
the country’s needs and finances;
• antiseptics.
All items to be used on more than one patient should be designed so that they can be cleaned
and disinfected. Such items include laboratory transport boxes or trays, tourniquets, evacuated
tube holders, scissors and so on. Also, it is best to buy high-quality items even if they are more
expensive. Trying to save money by purchasing cheap items that are of poor quality can be more
costly in the long run; for example, if items have to be replaced more frequently.
Governments and procurement agencies should work to ensure that appropriate products are
available in the country, by:
• providing detailed technical specifications to companies wishing to enter the market – such
specifications should include detailed minimum standards acceptable for safety, quality and
usability;
• working with manufactures to communicate defined needs to improve products;
• working with national or international regulatory authorities to test products before
importation, to ensure they meet their stated claims and are more effective than cheaper
products available on the market;
50 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
• working together to ensure fair, transparent competition and input of end users during
product selection;
• conducting post-marketing surveillance to track defects and adverse events associated with
products.
Facilities that cannot afford the supplies needed to minimize risk to staff and patients, or
supplies of the quality necessary for valid and reliable laboratory test results, should reassess
whether they should offer phlebotomy or the related laboratory services.
8.2.1 Blood-sampling equipment
Recommendation on blood-sampling equipment (Annex C)
Safety-engineered evacuated tube systems or winged needle sets are
safer than a hypodermic needle and syringe, but all are effective for blood
sampling. Safety features (e.g. needle covers, needleless transfer systems
or adaptors, and retractable lancets) can further reduce the risks associated
with manual recapping, needle removal, disassembly and transfer of blood
from syringes to tubes.
• A needle and syringe is the most common tool for withdrawing large quantities of blood.
• A sterile single-use needle and syringe should be used for each patient, and should be
placed, as a single unit, into a sharps container immediately after use.
• Safety-engineered equipment offers better protection to the health worker, but should be
appropriate for the specific task. Some devices designed to prevent reuse (e.g. auto-disable
syringes) are not appropriate for phlebotomy. Safety devices are more expensive, so if
resources are limited, their use may need to be restricted to procedures associated with the
greatest rates or risk of sharps injury.
• Capillary punctures should be performed using a sterile device – preferably with safety
features that automatically retract the lancet – to help prevent both reuse and sharps
injuries.
8.2.2 Protection
Recommendation on personal protection
Health workers should wear well-fitting, non-sterile gloves when taking
blood; they should also carry out hand hygiene before and after each patient
procedure, before putting on and after removing gloves.
Clean, non-sterile examination gloves in multiple sizes should be available for personnel who
carry out phlebotomy. It is recommended that:
• well-fitting gloves are worn for each procedure, irrespective of the site of blood sampling or
the status of the patient; these gloves can be latex or latex-free, and should be non-sterile
(i.e. examination gloves);
• the gloves are changed between patients;
• masks, visors and eye protection may also be needed if additional blood exposure is
anticipated; for example, during arterial blood sampling.
8 Implementing best phlebotomy practices 51
8.3 Phlebotomy training
Recommendation on phlebotomy training (Annex E)
All health workers undertaking phlebotomy must be trained in infection
prevention and control procedures. Staff should receive training and
demonstrate proficiency on the specific methods that they will use on the
job; for example, adult and paediatric sampling; and venous, arterial and
capillary blood sampling.
• Regular in-service training and supportive supervision should be provided.
• The training programme should provide theoretical and practical knowledge in blood
sampling and blood drawing (31).
• A certificate of competence should be issued upon successful demonstration of phlebotomy
after completion of the training programme.
8.4 Safe waste and sharps disposal
Recommendation on safe disposal of sharps (72)
The blood-sampling device – a needle and syringe, evacuated needle and
tube holder, or winged butterfly – should be disposed of immediately after
use as a single unit. It should be placed in a puncture-proof, leak-proof,
closable sharps container that is clearly visible and is placed within arm’s
reach of the health worker.
• The safe disposal of sharps is one of the major challenges, particularly in poorly resourced
countries.
• Shortage of sharps containers can result in increases in needle-stick injuries due to:
– needle recapping;
– decanting of used sharps containers;
– recycling of containers;
– overfilling of sharps containers.
• Another issue is that staff may separate a needle and syringe as a cost-saving exercise and
discard the two parts in different waste systems.
• The immediate discard of used sharps into a puncture-resistant sharps container that can
be closed is an essential part of managing waste without needle-stick injuries (73).
52 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
8.5 Prevention and management of incidents and adverse
events
Recommendation on infection control (Annex B)
Infection control procedures that help to prevent health-care associated
infections include:
• hand hygiene;
• glove use;
• skin antisepsis;
• sterile, single-use blood-sampling devices;
• sharps containers;
• disinfection of surfaces and chairs;
• cleaning and disinfection of tourniquets;
• transportation of laboratory samples in labelled, washable containers.
Annex B summarizes the recommendations for best infection control practices in phlebotomy.
The points listed below contribute to infection control.
• The workplace should be clean, tidy and uncluttered. There should be no sign of blood
contamination on the chairs, counters or walls. The working surface should be visibly clean.
• Hand hygiene (hand washing or use of an alcohol rub) should be carried out before wellfitting,
non-sterile gloves are put on and after they are removed (45).
• Only sterile, single-use blood-sampling devices should be used to take blood.
• Skin at the venepuncture site should be disinfected, taking into consideration the type of
specimen, the age and the allergy history of the patient (40–42).
• Once the procedure has been completed and the blood sample or samples have been put
into the laboratory sampling tubes, the used devices should be discarded immediately into a
sharps container.
• Specimens should be transported in containers that help to prevent breakage or spillage of
blood.
8.5.1 Patient related
Recommendation on increasing patient confidence (Annex F)
Health-care facilities should provide a patient information leaflet or poster
explaining the procedure in simple terms, to increase patient confidence.
• Patient information (leaflets or posters) is recommended. In a busy clinic, there may not be
time to explain the procedure to the patient, or the reason for the blood sample being taken.
• Information should be provided to a fully conscious patient in such a way that the person
can make an informed decision. Being well informed also helps the patient to relax and may
reduce discomfort during the procedure.
• If the patient is mentally incapacitated (e.g. through mental illness, organic impairment,
or traumatic or drug-associated loss of consciousness), essential blood sampling may be
carried out without permission, in accordance with the institutional or national policy.
However, the status of the patient should be clearly documented in the patient’s clinical
notes.
8 Implementing best phlebotomy practices 53
• If the patient is unconscious or unable to give informed consent, the next of kin or legal
guardian (which can be a court of law) can give permission for a blood sample to be taken.
• When carrying out blood sampling on a minor, verbal or written permission from the
parent or legal guardian, or a court of law may be necessary for medicolegal reasons.
8.5.2 Health-worker related
Recommendation on health worker and patient safety policies
A post-exposure prophylaxis protocol must be available in all health-care
facilities and phlebotomy areas, providing clear instructions to follow in case
of accidental exposure to blood or body fluids.
• Should an exposure occur, health workers should be aware of the policy on PEP. Ideally,
this policy should offer support for exposure to HIV, HBV and HCV (27).
• Worksites should have clear notices giving the point of contact (both during the day and at
night) where staff may receive assistance, support and care, including PEP and the benefits
of prompt reporting for preventing infection. This applies to potentially exposed patients as
well.
• Occupational injuries should be reported in a system that allows medical management and
tracking of exposed individuals, but also allows anonymous analysis of incidents, to identify
factors that can be modified to prevent accidents. Some facilities supplement requests for
medical management with periodic anonymous surveys to improve reporting of exposures
and near misses.
• The benefits of PEP for HIV may be greatest if it is started as soon as possible; certainly, it
should be started no later than 72 hours after exposure (27). Both the source patient and
the exposed individual should undergo rapid testing to avoid unnecessary treatment. Based
on the test result or if the risk assessment requires it, antiretroviral therapy prophylaxis
should be proposed as soon as possible; ideally within the first hours, and certainly no later
than 72 hours after the exposure.
• Hepatitis B immunization should be offered to all those working in health-care facilities,
and especially to phlebotomists. One to two months after completing the three-dose
series, the health worker should be tested to verify seroprotection (i.e. a concentration of
antibodies to hepatitis B surface antigen of at least 10 milli-international units per millilitre
[10 mIU/ml]). This is important because follow-up – including repeat serology testing after
exposure to a patient positive for hepatitis B surface antigen – is unnecessary if the exposed
person was known to have responded to the vaccine. Titres will decrease over time, even
in those who are seroprotected, but the vaccinated person remains protected. In case of
exposure, national guidelines on PEP for HBV exposure should be consulted. If none are
available, detailed instructions on the use of hepatitis B immune serum globulin (HBIG)
and immunization against HBV are available from WHO (27).
• A fourth dose of hepatitis B vaccine should be offered to those who have completed their
immunization but were tested 1–2 months after completing the vaccination and had a
hepatitis B surface antibody titre below 10 mIU/ml. If fewer than three doses of hepatitis B
immunization have been given, a course of hepatitis B immunization should be provided or
completed.
• There is no recommended PEP for exposure to HCV. If feasible, testing of the source
patient and health worker may be helpful to ensure workers compensation in the case that
occupationally acquired infection is demonstrated. Research on PEP for HCV is ongoing to
determine whether a regimen involving peginterfeon alfa-2b is effective. However, at least
one recent trial failed because none of the 213 workers exposed to HCV developed infection,
whether they received PEP or not (74).
54 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
8.5.3 Risk assessment and risk reduction strategies
There is a risk to both patients (or blood donors) and health workers if the phlebotomist is not
well informed of the patient’s risks. A short clinical history from the patient is essential.
Risk can be reduced by following best practices in infection prevention and control, after
obtaining informed consent from the patient and blood donors (Table 8.1).
Table 8.1 Summary of risks and risk-reduction strategies
Risk Type of risk Risk reduction strategy
Patient/
blood donors
Exposure to bloodborne
viruses through reuse of
needles, syringes and lancets,
contaminated work surfaces
• Hepatitis B vaccine for workers
• Sterile single-use devices only
• Safety-engineered devices
• Clean work surfaces with disinfectant
Infection at blood sampling site • Perform hand hygiene
• Clean patient’s skin with 70% isopropyl alcohol and
allow to dry
• Use sterile needle and syringe removed from the
packaging just before use
Pain at blood sampling site • Well-trained person should take the blood sample
• Venepuncture is less painful than heel-pricks in
neonates
• Use needle of smaller gauge than the selected vein
Haematoma or thrombus • Enter vessel at an angle of 30 degrees or less
• Use gauge of needle smaller than the vein
• Apply pressure to a straight arm for 3–5 minutes after
drawing blood
Extensive bleeding • Take a history to identify patients on anticoagulants
and with a history of bleeding
• Use a gauge of needle smaller than the vein
Nerve damage (8, 10) • Avoid finger-pricks for children
• Use antecubital vessels when possible
• Avoid probing
Vasovagal reaction
Syncope, fainting (8, 10)
• Hydrate patient, take postural blood pressure if
dehydrated
• Reduce anxiety
• Have patient lie down if the person expresses concern
• Provide audio-visusal distraction
Allergies • Ask about allergies to latex, iodine and alcohol before
starting the procedure
Health worker Needle or sharps injury during
or after the procedure
Breakage of blood containers
Splashes (rare)
• Use safety devices such as needle covers, tube holders
that release needles with one hand and safety lancets
• Avoid two-handed recapping and disassembly
• Place sharps container in sight and within arm’s reach
• Dispose of used sharps immediately
Exposure to blood • Hepatitis B vaccination
• Wear gloves
• Use evacuated tubes and transfer devices when
drawing multiple tubes
• Follow protocol for exposure to body fluids and report
incident, even if post-exposure prophylaxis is not
desired
• Cover broken skin area with a waterproof dressing
9 Monitoring and evaluation 55
9 Monitoring and evaluation
A monitoring and evaluation system should be in place to offer surveillance of management of
phlebotomy services and adverse events, and to document improvements. The indicators to use
include:
• number and rate per 100 full-time workers of sharps exposures and other occupational
injuries occurring among health workers in the past 12 months;
• number and rate of patients with adverse events in response to phlebotomy such as
haematoma, syncope, infection or nerve damage;
• number of reported cases of bloodborne pathogens transmitted during phlebotomy (disease
surveillance for hepatitis B and C, and HIV) as part of a public health surveillance system
that is capable of receiving and responding to reports of cases and clusters of infections;
• number (and percentage) of phlebotomy sessions where essential equipment was not
available and phlebotomy sessions were cancelled;
• number (and percentage) of laboratory test results lost due to errors or poor quality; for
example
– blood culture contamination rate;
– blood transfusion adverse events;
– haemolysis;
– number of specimens with illegible or missing paperwork or labels;
– number of specimens that could not be processed due to inadequate sample volumes;
• number (and percentage) of trained staff in the health-care facility working in phlebotomy;
• number (and proportion) of juniors who are supervised by trained staff.
PART IV REFERENCES
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PART V ANNEXES
Annex A: Methods and evidence base 65
Annex A: Methods and evidence base
A1 Consultation with experts and scope of recommendations
In April 2008, the WHO Injection Safety programme – which is part of the Department
of Essential Health Technologies (EHT) at WHO Headquarters in Geneva – convened a
consultation on best practices for phlebotomy and blood collection. The consultation included
special categories such as arterial blood sampling, capillary blood sampling and paediatric blood
collection.
A working group was convened, comprising international experts and colleagues from WHO
departments involved in infection control and safety of health-care practices.
The specific objectives of the consultation were to:
• review the first draft of this document, which had been developed in response to clinical
questions and a suggested scope developed by SIGN in consultation with other WHO
experts and the Centres for Disease Control and Prevention;
• identify critical steps in phlebotomy procedure as a basis for making recommendations.
The focus of the consultation was primarily on the needs of developing and transitional
countries, in which injection safety programmes are not yet well developed or in which quality
systems are lacking. The consultation identified the need for guidelines on best phlebotomy
practices in policy and organizational issues, and in technical and scientific aspects of blood
collection.
Recommendations of the working group
Content of guidelines
Guidelines should include information on the importance of:
• safe practices in phlebotomy;
• an uninterrupted supply of single-use devices in situations where safetyengineered
devices are unaffordable;
• training in phlebotomy, to avoid adverse effects to the patient and the
health worker, and blood samples of poor quality.
Evidence base
Recommendations should be evidence based.
Consistency and flexibility
Recommendations should be designed to:
• promote a consistent approach to ensuring phlebotomy safety and
quality of blood drawn;
• be sufficiently flexible to allow for variations in device selection and
training curricula.
66 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
A2 Evidence base
An initial literature search was conducted by the guideline writer – Professor Mehtar (chair
of the working group) – using PubMed, MedLine, the WHO library database and regional
databases. Particular efforts were made to identify systematic literature reviews and evidence
that related specifically to phlebotomy practices in developing countries.
The panel reviewed the draft guidelines and the evidence retrieved, and reached consensus on
all but one of the recommendations. It found that further evidence was needed to determine the
effect of “alcohol alone” versus “any skin disinfectant followed by alcohol for skin preparation”
before blood collection for the purpose of blood transfusion. The panel commissioned a
systematic review with evidence tables based on GRADE1 from the Cochrane group. The overall
finding from the review, which is given in Annex J (1), was as follows:
In conclusion there is currently no evidence of a difference in either blood
contamination or bacteraemia when donor skin is cleansed pre-venepuncture with
a one-step alcohol based process or a two-step alcohol plus antiseptic process. This
lack of evidence for a difference however results from a complete absence of research
and therefore a real difference cannot be discounted. Until better evidence emerges,
decisions about which mode of pre-blood donation skin cleansing to use are likely to be
driven by convenience and cost.
This conclusion was circulated to the guideline development group, with a request for advice on
the best recommendation to incorporate into the guideline. Additional infection control experts
(see list of additional reviewers) were consulted by e-mail, in line with the WHO guideline
development procedure which notes that, when evidence is lacking, a recommendation should
be based on expert opinion as well as on convenience and cost. Consensus was reached by asking
the experts to vote on the final recommendation.
The group was able to make a recommendation on best practice for skin disinfection in blood
transfusion (see Section 4.2.1). Due to lack of evidence, the recommendation was based on
expert opinion.
A3 Peer review and technical editing
Following the internal and external review and revision, an advanced draft of the document was
sent to Dr Mary Catlin and Dr Michael Borg for a thorough peer review. The guideline was then
submitted to the guideline development group and to additional experts who contributed to
the development of the recommendation on skin disinfection before blood donation. The expert
group amended the guidelines in light of the comments received and agreed.
The technical editing of this document was undertaken by Dr Hilary Cadman, under the
technical guidance of Dr Selma Khamassi.
A4 Implementation and evaluation plans
The final phlebotomy guidelines will be translated into all United Nations languages, and
printed for distribution in all six WHO Regional Offices and in many different countries. It
will also be made available through the WHO Injection Safety Website. A CD-ROM containing
the phlebotomy document, posters illustrating each of the practices described and a training
package will be produced and translated. The document will also be adapted to local needs in
some countries, although key steps and recommendations will be maintained.
1 The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) Working Group is an informal
collaboration that has developed a common, sensible and transparent approach to grading quality of evidence and strength
of recommendations (http://www.gradeworkinggroup.org).
Annex A: Methods and evidence base 67
Upon request, the WHO Injection Safety programme will provide technical support for adapting
and implementing the guideline at regional and country levels.
The feasibility of recommended practices and the impact of the guideline on phlebotomy
practices will be evaluated by the WHO Injection Safety programme, in collaboration with WHO
Regional Offices. Feasibility and impact will be evaluated using the revised injection safety
assessment tool C, developed by the WHO Injection Safety programme (2).
A5 Review and updating of the recommendations
The recommendations in this document are expected to remain valid for five years; that is, until
2014. The WHO Injection Safety programme will initiate a review of these recommendations at
that time.
A6 Monitoring and evaluation of the implementation
The indicators listed in Chapter 9 should be used to monitor and evaluate the implementation of
these guidelines.
Annex B: Infection prevention and control, safety equipment and best practice 69
Annex B: Infection prevention and control,
safety equipment and best practice
Table B.1 Recommendations for infection prevention and control, safety equipment and best practice
Item Best practice Rationale
Personal protection and hygiene
Hand hygienea Before and after each patient contact, as
well as between procedures on the same
patient
Reduces risk of cross-contamination
between patients
Glovesa A pair of well-fitting, clean, disposable
latex or latex-free gloves per patient or
per procedure
Reduces the health-care worker’s
potential exposure to blood and reduces
the patient’s risk of cross-contamination
between patients
Masks, visors or
goggles
Not indicated
Apron/gown or cover Not indicated
Safe blood-sampling equipment
Tourniquet Clean elastic tourniquet reprocessed
between patients
Contamination with nosocomial bacteria
has been documented on tourniquets
DO NOT use latex gloves as a tourniquet
if patients have an history of latex
allergy
Some patients may have latex allergy
Sharps containers Puncture and leak-proof containers, that
are sealed after use
Keep container visible and within arms’
reach
Prevents needle-stick injury to patients,
health workers and the community at
large
Skin preparation Inspect skin, clean if visibly dirty
Apply 70% alcohol with single-use swab
or clean cotton-wool ball
Prevents insertion-site infection and
contamination of the blood collected
Cotton wool that is pre-torn with bare
hands is contaminated and bacteria can
multiply over time
Do not leave containers of cotton
saturated alcohol and cotton; dampen
cotton immediately before use without
contaminating the primary container
For blood donation, a one-step
combination of 2% chlorhexidine
gluconate in 70% isopropyl alcohol is
recommended; allow to air dry
Reduces contamination of the blood
collected
Blood sampling
Drawing venous blood Closed vacuum extraction tubes with
single-use needle and needle holder
Reduces exposure to blood and
likelihood of contamination
If needleholders must be reused due to
cost, they should be removed with one
hand; some safety boxes have slots for
this purpose
Winged needles with needle cover
Safety syringes with retractable needles
Safer for health workers and patients –
reduces exposure to blood and sharps
injuries
70 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Table B.1 continued
Item Best practice Rationale
Blood sampling
Small quantities of
capillary blood
Single-use lancet
Retractable lancet
Lancet platform or glucometer is
dedicated to one patient during hospital
stay, or platform or device is cleaned
of all visible dirt and disinfected with
alcohol between uses
Hypodermic needles should be used with
care as they may enter deeper than is
desirable; they should never be used for
heel-pricks
Hepatitis infections have been
transmitted to patients when lancet
platforms or glucometers were used on
several patients without reprocessing
(i.e. without cleaning and disinfection)
Blood-sampling
system
Blood-sampling tubes or containers
(single use)
Vacuum-extraction sampling reduces
exposure to blood
Blood-drawing system Sterile blood collection bag (single or
multiple bag systems) with integrated
needle and needle protection
Blood collected in these systems should
be stored and transported according to
blood-bank procedures and the product
(i.e. warm or cold stored) 150–500 ml
sterile bag or bags for blood (medical or
blood donation)
Reduces bacterial contamination
Protects the health worker and patient
Platelets may be stored at room
temperature
Some sterile blood bags may have
a diversion pouch to separate the
first 10 ml or so of blood to reduce
contamination
Transportation of
laboratory samples
Closed system that keeps samples
upright and snugly fitted in stackable
trays or racks
Clearly labelled blood sample containers
(Some samples – such as cold
agglutinins – may need to be
transported in a warm transportation
system)
Closed system keeps blood samples
contained in case of breakage or spillage
Clearly labelled sample containers with
tracking system allows samples to be
traced
Request forms A legible completed form must
accompany blood sample to laboratory
Form is stored with samples but in a
separate compartment of the laboratory
transport system
Provides accurate information on tests
required and patient identification
Some facilities use a plastic bag with
an outer pouch that keeps the paper
with the specimen but protects it from
contamination
Specimen storage and
blood sampling area
Storage in a cool, separate area;
temperature regulated to around 25o C
Keeps samples secure and away from
the general public
Patient information Verbal explanation and consent
(information leaflet)
Helps to ensure patient cooperation and
respect of patient rights
a Source for information on hand hygiene and gloves: (3, 4).
Annex C: Devices available for drawing blood 71
Annex C: Devices available for drawing blood
The information given in this appendix is based on advice from the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (5).
Table C.1 Devices for drawing blood
Type of device Advantages Disadvantages
Conventional devices
Hypodermic single-use needle and
syringe
Widely available
Least expensive
Comes in wide range of needle
lengths and gauges
Does not require special training
Can be used for blood drawing in
paediatric population
For patient with small or difficult
veins, blood drawing can be easier
than an evacuated tube system
If heparinized, can be used for
arterial blood drawing
Requires blood transfer, creating
additional risk for needle-stick
injuries or blood splashing
Difficult to draw large or multiple
blood samples
A smaller syringe and paediatric
laboratory tube should be used for
paediatric patients
Vacuum-tube systems Safer than using hypodermic
needle and syringe
Eliminates blood transfer
Allows numerous blood samples
to be collected through single
venepuncture
Requires user to be skilled in its
use
Reuse of needle holder (tube
holder) creates risk for needlestick
injuries during disassembly
Mixing components from different
manufactures can create a
problem during use
A smaller tube with a reduced
vacuum should be used for
paediatric patients
Higher cost
Winged steel needles (butterfly) Good for blood drawing from
paediatric population or patient
with small or difficult veins
Allows better precision than
hypodermic needle or evacuated
tube needle
Because of the air in the tubing,
first tube must be collected
without additive or discarded
Difference in winged steel needles
for evacuated system tubes and
winged infusion set can create
confusion
Higher cost
Safety-engineered devices
Passive
Auto-disable (AD) syringes
NOT recommended for blood
drawing
Not recommended for phlebotomy
Designed to prevent reuse, does
not reduce the risks of needlesticks
During probing, safety mechanism
can be activated, requiring new
venepuncture
Requires blood transfer, creating
risk of needle-stick injuries
Difficult to draw large or multiple
blood samples
Does NOT offer needle-stick
prevention
Air in the syringe can affect test
results
Requires additional training
Lancets Retractable; prevent needle-stick
injuries
72 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Table C.1 continued
Type of device Advantages Disadvantages
Safety-engineered devices
Active
Manually retractable syringes Safety mechanism retracts the
needle into the syringe, reducing
the hazard of needle-stick
exposure and the possibility of
reuse
Safety mechanism cannot be
activated when syringe is full of
blood and during blood transfer
Requires health worker to use it as
recommended
Requires blood transfer, creating
risk of needle-stick injuries
Difficult to draw large or multiple
blood samples
High cost
Self re-sheathing needles and
syringes
Sleeve forwarded over the needle
provides guard around the used
needle, reducing the risk of
needle-stick injury; also prevents
reuse
Needle cannot be covered when
syringe is full of blood or during
blood transfer
Requires user’s compliance
Additional training
High cost
Winged steel needles with passive
or active safety mechanism
Needle-locking mechanism helps
to reduce the risk of needle-stick
injury and prevents reuse
If syringe is used for blood
drawing, allows for safer transfer
of blood
If used in connection with vacuum
tubes, because of the air in
tubing, the first tube is either
without additive or discarded
Requires additional training
High cost
Manually retractable evacuated
tube systems
Safer than using hypodermic
needle and syringe because does
not require blood transfer
Allows numerous blood samples
to be collected through single
venepuncture
Safety mechanism prevents reuse
and helps to reduce the risk of
needle-stick injuries
Requires skill in its use
Reuse of needle (or tube) holders
creates risk of needle-stick injuries
during disassembly
Components from different
manufacturers may be
incompatible
Smaller volume (1–5 ml) tube
with lower vacuum should be used
for paediatric patients to reduce
haemolysis
Requires additional training
High cost
Annex D: Managing occupational exposure to hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV 73
Annex D: Managing occupational exposure to
hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV
Health workers may occasionally be accidentally exposed to blood and other body fluids that
are potentially infected with HIV, hepatitis virus or other bloodborne pathogens. Occupational
exposure may occur through direct contact from splashes into the eyes or mouth, or through
injury with a used needle or sharp instrument. Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) can help to
prevent the transmission of pathogens after a potential exposure (6).
This annex describes the steps in managing exposure to blood or other fluids that are potentially
infected with hepatitis B virus (HBV); hepatitis C virus (HCV) or HIV.
Step 1 – Provide immediate first-aid care to the exposure site
Provide immediate first-aid care as follows.
• Wash wounds and skin with soap and water. Do not use alcohol or strong disinfectants.
• Let the wound bleed freely.
• Do not put on a dressing.
• Flush eyes, the nose, the mouth and mucous membranes with water for at least 10 minutes.
Step 2 – Determine the risk associated with the exposure
Determine the risk associated with the exposure by considering:
• the type of fluid; for example, blood, visibly bloody fluid, other potentially infectious fluid,
or tissue and concentration of virus;
• the type of exposure; for example, there is a higher risk associated with percutaneous injury
with a large, hollow-bore needle, a deep puncture, visible blood on the device, a needle
used in an artery or vein, and exposure to a large volume of blood or semen, and less risk
associated with exposure of mucous membranes or nonintact skin, or exposure to a small
volume of blood, semen or a less infectious fluid (e.g. cerebrospinal fluid).
Step 3 – Evaluate the source of the potential exposure
To evaluate the source of the potential exposure:
• assess the risk of infection, using available information;
• test the source person whenever possible, and only with his or her informed consent; but
• do not test discarded needles or syringes for virus contamination.
74 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Step 4 – Manage individuals exposed to HBV and HIV
There is no PEP regimen recommended for HCV; however, there are specific steps that can be
taken to reduce the risk of infection for those exposed to HBV and HIV, as described below.
Post-exposure prophylaxis for HBV
A person’s response to exposure to HBV depends on his or her immune status, as determined by
the history of hepatitis B vaccination and vaccine response if tested 1–2 months after vaccination
(see Table D.1), and whether the exposure poses a risk of infection. HBV PEP is safe for women
who are pregnant or breastfeeding.
Table D.1 Recommendations for HBV post-exposure prophylaxis, according to immune status
HBV immune status Post-exposure prophylaxis
Unvaccinated HBV vaccination and HBIg
Previously vaccinated, known responder
(anti-hepatitis B surface antigen positive)
None
Previously vaccinated, known nonresponder HBV vaccination and HBIg
Antibody response unknown Test; if antibody response is < 10 IU/ml, give HBV
vaccination and HBIg
HBIg, hepatitis B immunogobulin; HBV, hepatitis B virus.
Source: CDC (7).
Post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV
Check the current national guidelines. This section is based on the WHO/ILO Guidelines on
post exposure prophylaxis prophylaxis (PEP) to prevent human immunodeficiency virus
(HIV) infection (6). In addition to first-aid care and evaluation of exposure and risk, PEP for
HIV includes counselling, HIV testing based on informed consent, and – depending on the
risk assessment – the provision of a short course (28 days) of antiretroviral (ARV) drugs, with
follow-up and support.
The recommendation for HIV PEP is based on an evaluation of the risk of infection described in
step 2.
If the source person is identified, it is important to obtain information on that person’s
serostatus and, if positive, an evaluation of the clinical status and treatment history.
Testing and counselling
If testing is available, the exposed person should be offered the chance to be tested for HIV and
receive appropriate counselling. The person should always have the choice to refuse testing.
Perform HIV-antibody testing at baseline, and at 6–12 weeks and 6 months after exposure. If the
person develops HIV antibodies, he or she should be referred for treatment, care and support.
Whenever possible, the source patient should also be tested, with his or her informed consent.
Antiretroviral drugs for post-exposure prophylaxis
ARV drugs should be started as soon as possible, and certainly within 72 hours of exposure.
The drugs should be taken continuously for 28 days. Health workers should not wait for tests
results before taking or administering PEP. If the test results show that the source person is
negative, the prophylaxis can be stopped. Counselling should include provision of information
on the importance of adhering to treatment, and information on HIV prevention in general
and in the workplace. The person should be advised to use condoms, and not to donate blood
Annex D: Managing occupational exposure to hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV 75
or organs for up to 6 months after exposure. Women of childbearing age should be advised to
use contraception, and alternatives to breastfeeding should be discussed with women currently
feeding their infants, because there is a high risk of transmitting HIV to the infant if the mother
becomes infected during breastfeeding.
Based on WHO recommendations, a two-drug PEP regimen should be used (see Table D.2),
unless there is suspicion or evidence of drug resistance. The standard regimen consists of two
nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). When there is suspicion that the virus could
be resistant to one or more of the drugs included in the standard PEP regimen, a third drug – a
protease inhibitor – should be added to the two chosen NRTIs (see Table D.2). In this situation,
it is best to consult an HIV expert.
Table D.2 Recommended two and three-drug post-exposure prophylaxis regimens
Two-drug regimens
Preferred regimens 1. ZDV + 3TC
2. d4T + 3TC
Alternative regimen 3. TDF + 3TC
Three-drug regimens
Preferred regimen 1. ZDV + 3TC + LPV/r
Alternative regimens 2. ZDV + 3TC plus SQV/r or ATV/r or FPV/r
3. TDF + 3TC plus SQV/r or ATV/r or FPV/r
4. TDF + FTC plus SQV/r or ATV/r or FPV/r
5. (d4T) + 3TC plus SQV/r or ATV/r or FPV/r
3TC, lamivudine; ATV/r, atazanavir/ritonavir; d4T, stavudine; FPV/r, Fosamprenavir/ritonavir; FTC, emtricitabine; LPV/r, lopinavir/ritonavir; SQV/r,
siquinavir/rotinavir; TDF, tenofovir; ZDV, zidovudine.
Women of childbearing age should not be prescribed medications such as the combination
didanosine plus stavudine. They should be offered a pregnancy test before starting the PEP
regimen. Lactating women should be aware that ARVs are excreted in breast milk, and that the
virus itself can be transmitted through breastfeeding. When and where feasible, alternatives
options to breastfeeding should be discussed with the mother.
Follow-up
Follow-up visits should aim to support the person’s adherence to PEP, prevent or treat adverse
effects of the medicines, and detect seroconversion, if it occurs.
Advise those who have been exposed to take precautions to prevent secondary transmission
during the follow-up period. Such precautions include:
• avoiding pregnancy and seeking safe alternatives to breastfeeding;
• avoiding donating blood, tissue or sperm;
• using condoms during sexual intercourse, until the test at 6 months confirms that the
exposed person remains seronegative.
PEP for HIV and hepatitis B is not indicated:
• if the exposed person is already HIV-positive from a previous exposure;
• in the context of chronic exposure (e.g. repeated exposure to HIV from unprotected sexual
intercourse with a known HIV-positive partner); or
• if the exposure poses no risk of transmission; for example, in the case of
– exposure of intact skin to potentially infectious body fluids;
– exposure to body fluids that are not known to transmit HIV or HBV (faeces, saliva, urine
or sweat); or
76 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
– exposure to body fluids from a person known to be HIV-negative, unless the source
person is identified as being at high risk of having been recently infected and is currently
within the window period for seroconversion.
Step 5 – Report the incident
After the incident, refer the exposed person to a trained service provider who can give
counselling, evaluate the risk of transmission of bloodborne pathogens having occurred, and
decide on the need to prescribe ARV drugs or hepatitis B vaccine to prevent infection with HIV
or HBV, respectively.
Both the incident report and the evaluation of the risk of exposure should lead to quality control
and evaluation of the safety of working conditions.
Take correctional measures to prevent exposure to HIV and other bloodborne pathogens.
Annex E: Training course content for phlebotomists 77
Annex E: Training course content for
phlebotomists
Before undertaking phlebotomy, health workers should be trained in, and demonstrate
proficiency for, the blood collection procedures on the patient population that will be within
their scope of practice.
Training should cover paediatric, neonatal and intensive care, and blood transfusion, as
appropriate.
Competence in phlebotomy practices should be an essential part of the final evaluation of those
training as health workers.
The outcome of the course should be safety of patients, adequacy of the laboratory specimens,
and safety of health workers and the community.
Course contents
• Anatomy of the phlebotomy sites from which the worker is authorized to access blood.
• Infection prevention and control:
– elements of standard precautions relevant to venepuncture (hand hygiene, wearing
non-sterile gloves);
– use of antiseptics – skin disinfection;
– cleaning and disinfection of materials used on more than one patient, including
tourniquets, scissors and specimen carriers;
– disposal of used equipment, especially sharps.
• Protection of the patient:
– patient identification, including children and confused patients;
– awareness of the institution’s rule to halt and seek help after a defined number of
unsuccessful draws;
– informed consent and patient rights;
– managing supplies for patients in isolation;
– awareness of contraindications to blood draws including drawing on the same side as
a mastectomy, through infected or scarred tissues, and through in-dwelling vascular
devices (per institutional policy).
• Protection of the health worker:
– immunization with hepatitis B;
– awareness of high risk devices and practices;
– ability to state who and when to contact for support in the event of exposure to blood
and body fluids;
– awareness of the benefits of PEP and the need to have source patients tested and HIV
PEP started, preferably within hours;
– avoidance of two-handed needle recapping, disassembly of devices, removal of needles
prior to injecting blood into tube;
– placement and use of sharps container within arm’s reach;
– appropriate use of personal protective equipment, including gloves.
78 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
• Types of equipment available for blood sampling, and procurement and use of equipment.
• Practice taking blood samples, including blood sampling and simulated blood sampling
(capillary blood, arterial blood, venous blood from adults and children according to
responsibilities.
• Practice on artificial arms and clinical skills development.
• Special techniques:
– capillary puncture
▪ h eel and finger-pricks
▪ lancets
▪ capillary tubes (filter paper, capillary blood tubes, rapid test strips, etc.)
– venous blood
▪ large volume (blood letting – aware that this must be done under direct physician
order and management)
▪ winged needles
▪ evacuated tubes
▪ blood cultures.
• Adverse events and management.
• Occupational exposure and management:
– the country’s relevant occupational health regulations, including PEP for prevention of
HIV and hepatitis B;
– the procedure for, and benefits of, reporting occupational exposure to blood;
– first aid after exposure (see management);
– PEP (importance of timely response);
– surveillance and use of data for prevention of occupational exposure.
• Waste management, including disposal of waste and sharps, and procedures for spillage
and breakage.
• Laboratory practices, including type of samples, forms, labelling and transportation.
• Standards of practice.
• Sustainability of training programme.
• Career path.
• Skill-based incentives.
Annex F: Explaining the procedure to a patient 79
Annex F: Explaining the procedure to a patient
Introduction:
Hello, I am ________________ I work at this health-care facility.
What is your name? (Health-care worker checks first and last name against order for tests and
the patient’s name band if present).
I am trained to take blood for laboratory tests (or medical reasons) and I have experience in
taking blood.
I will introduce a small needle into your vein and gently draw some blood for ________ tests.
(Tell the patient the specific tests to be drawn).
Then I will label them with your name and contact details and send them off for tests to the
laboratory. The results will be returned to Dr ________ (mention the name of the clinician
who ordered the tests).
Do you have any questions? Did you understand what I explained to you? Are you willing to be
tested?
Please sit down and make yourself comfortable.
Now, I will ask you a few questions so that both of us feel comfortable about the procedure.
• Have you ever had blood taken before?
• (If yes) How did it feel? How long ago was that?
• Are you scared of needles?
• Are you allergic to anything? (Ask specifically about latex, povidone iodine, tape.)
• Have you ever fainted when your blood was drawn?
• Have you eaten or drunk anything in the past two hours?
• How are you feeling at the moment?
Shall we start? If you feel unwell or uncomfortable, please let me know at once.
Annex G: Disassembly of needle from syringe or other devices 81
Annex G: Disassembly of needle from syringe or
other devices
Safe methods of removing the needle from the syringe or other devices are necessary to protect
health workers from injury.
This procedure must be carried out close to a sharps container, and the needle must be
discarded immediately.
NEVER disassemble an exposed, used needle with your bare hands.
If the needle has to be disassembled from the barrel or syringe, re-sheath using a one-hand
scoop technique, then remove the needle using a removal device. Both of these procedures are
explained below.
One-hand scoop technique
1. Leave the needle cap on the surface and guide the tip of the used needle tip into it using
only one hand. Clean the surface with disinfectant afterward to avoid leaving blood.
2. Place the needle cap against a firm upright surface with its opening towards the
phlebotomist, and place the used needle tip into it.
3. Lift the needle and syringe vertically and, once the tip is covered, use the other hand to fix
the cap into place.
Use of a removal device
• Needle pliers – Hold the needle with pliers or artery forceps. Dislodge the needle by
unscrewing or pulling it off. Discard immediately into a sharps container.
• Needle guard (mushroom) – Place the cap in the device. Using one hand, insert the needle
tip into the cap vertically and turn firmly to fix the needle in the cap. Lift the syringe or
barrel and removed the covered needle. Discard immediately.
Annex H: Blood spillage 83
Annex H: Blood spillage
Blood spillage may occur because a laboratory sample breaks in the phlebotomy area or during
transportation, or because there is excessive bleeding during the procedure. In this situation,
clean up the spillage and record the incident, using the following procedure.
1. Wear a pair of non-sterile gloves.
2. Use tongs or a pan and brush to sweep up as much of the broken glass (or container) as
possible. Do not pick up pieces with your hands.
3. Discard the broken glass in a sharps container. If this is not possible due to the size of the
broken glass, wrap the glass or container in several layers of paper and discard it carefully
in a separate container. Do not place it in the regular waste container.
4. Use disposable paper towels to absorb as much of the body fluids as possible.
5. Wipe the area with water and detergent until it is visibly clean.
6. Saturate the area again with sodium hypochlorite 0.5% (10 000 ppm available chlorine).
This is a 1:10 dilution of 5.25% sodium hypochlorite bleach, which should be prepared
daily.
7. Rinse off the tongs, brush and pan, under running water and place to dry.
8. Remove gloves and discard them.
9. Wash hands carefully with soap and water, and dry thoroughly with single-use towels.
10. Record the incident in the incident book if a specimen was lost, or persons were exposed to
blood and body fluids.
Annex I: Modified Allen test 85
Annex I: Modified Allen test
A modified Allen test measures arterial competency, and should be performed before taking an
arterial sample. The procedure for performing the test is as follows (see Figure I.1, below).
1. Instruct the patient to clench his or her fist; if the patient is unable to do this, close the
person’s hand tightly.
2. Using your fingers, apply occlusive pressure to both the ulnar and radial arteries, to obstruct
blood flow to the hand.
3. While applying occlusive pressure to both arteries, have the patient relax his or her hand,
and check whether the palm and fingers have blanched. If this is not the case, you have not
completely occluded the arteries with your fingers.
Figure I.1 Allen test
Source: http://fitsweb.uchc.edu/student/selectives/TimurGraham/Modified_Allen%27s_Test.html
Release the occlusive pressure on the ulnar artery only to determine whether the modified Allen
test is positive or negative.
• Positive modified Allen test – If the hand flushes within 5–15 seconds it indicates that the
ulnar artery has good blood flow; this normal flushing of the hand is considered to be a
positive test.
• Negative modified Allen test – If the hand does not flush within 5–15 seconds, it indicates
that ulnar circulation is inadequate or nonexistent; in this situation, the radial artery
supplying arterial blood to that hand should not be punctured.
Thumbs occlude radial and ulnar arteries.
Pallor is produced by clenched fist.
Thumb occludes radial artery while ulnar artery is
released and patent. Unclenched hand returns to
baseline colour because of ulnar artery and connecting
arches.
Annex J: Cochrane review 87
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Skin preparation with alcohol versus alcohol followed by any antiseptic for
preventing bacteraemia or contamination of blood for transfusion.
Review information
Authors
Joan Webster1, Sally EM Bell-Syer2, Ruth Foxlee2
1Centre for Clinical Nursing, Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Herston, Australia
2Department of Health Sciences, University of York, York, UK
Citation example: Webster J, Bell-Syer SEM, Foxlee R. Skin preparation with alcohol versus alcohol followed by
any antiseptic for preventing bacteraemia or contamination of blood for transfusion.. Cochrane Database of
Systematic Reviews , Issue . Art. No.: . DOI: .
Contact person
Joan Webster
Nursing Director, Research
Centre for Clinical Nursing
Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital
Level 2, Building 34
Butterfield Street
Herston
QLD
4029
Australia
E-mail: This e-mail address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it
Dates
Assessed as Up-to-date:10 March 2009
Date of Search: 10 March 2009
Next Stage Expected: 4 April 2011
Protocol First Published: Not specified
Review First Published: Not specified
Last Citation Issue: Not specified
What's new
Date Event Description
History
Date Event Description
Abstract
Background
Blood for transfusion may become contaminated at any point between collection and transfusion and may result
in bacteraemia (the presence of bacteria in the blood), severe illness or even death for the blood recipient. Donor
arm skin is one potential source of blood contamination, so it is usual to cleanse the skin with an antiseptic
before blood donation. One-step and two-step alcohol based antiseptic regimens are both commonly advocated
but there is uncertainty as to which is most effective.
Objectives
To assess the effects of cleansing the skin of blood donors with alcohol in a one-step compared with alcohol in a
two-step procedure to prevent contamination of collected blood or bacteraemia in the recipient.
Search strategy
We searched the Cochrane Wounds Group Specialised Register (March 10 2009); The Cochrane Central Register
of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) The Cochrane Library 2009, Issue 1; Ovid MEDLINE - (1950 to February Week 4
2009); Ovid EMBASE - (1980 to 2009 Week 9); and EBSCO CINAHL - (1982 to February Week 4 2009). We also
searched the reference lists of key papers.
Selection criteria
All randomised trials (RCTs) comparing alcohol based donor skin cleansing in a one-step versus a two-step
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process that includes alcohol and any other antiseptic for pre-venepuncture skin cleansing were considered.
Quasi randomised trials were to have been considered in the absence of RCTs.
Data collection and analysis
Two review authors independently assessed studies for inclusion.
Main results
No studies (RCTs or quasi RCTs) met the inclusion criteria.
Authors' conclusions
We did not identify any eligible studies for inclusion in this review. It is therefore unclear whether a two-step,
alcohol followed by antiseptic skin cleansing process prior to blood donation confers any reduction in the risk of
blood contamination or bacteraemia in blood recipients, or conversely whether a one-step process increases risk
above that associated with a two-step process.
Plain language summary
Alcohol, with or without an antiseptic, for preparing the skin before blood collection, to prevent
bacteraemia or contamination of blood for transfusion.
When blood is collected from blood donors for transfusion it may become contaminated during collection,
storage or transfusion. Blood contamination can cause bacteraemia (the presence of bacteria in the blood),
severe illness or even death in the blood recipient. When blood is being taken from donors, the skin on the arm
of the donor is one potential source of contamination, so it is usual to cleanse the arm with an antiseptic first,
and both one-step and two-step alcohol based regimens are commonly used, however there is uncertainty about
which regimen is the most effective for reducing the microbial load (the number of microscopic bacterial
organisms) on the donor arm. We looked for studies that compared the use of alcohol alone versus the use of
alcohol followed by another antiseptic to clean the arm before the needle is inserted to draw blood, but we did
not find any relevant studies. It is currently unclear whether donor skin cleansing with a one-step alcohol based
regimen reduces the risk of blood contamination compared with a two-step alcohol based regimen during blood
donation.
Background
Complications associated with the infusion of blood and blood-related products have reduced in recent years,
due to considerable advances in detecting transfusion-related viral pathogens, such as human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV) and hepatitis C and B virus (HCV and HBV). In contrast, bacteraemia, resulting from bacterial
contamination of blood products continues to be an ongoing problem (Sandler 2003; Wagner 2004). Exogenous
contamination of donor blood may occur at any point during collection, storage and transfusion (McDonald 2001
). One of the sources of contamination is thought to be the donor's skin, as a result of inadequate skin cleansing
(de Korte 2006; McDonald 2006).
Description of the condition
Bacteraemia, or the presence of bacteria in the blood, is a potentially fatal condition. It is associated with high
rates of morbidity (Hakim 2007; Sligl 2006). Microorganisms may enter the blood stream through almost any
organ (for example the lungs following pneumonia), through a surgical site, or via an implanted device such as
an intravenous catheter. Prognosis is related to the virulence of the infective organism, severity of the sepsis at
diagnosis and the underlying health of the patient (Herchline 1997). Although the aetiology of bacteraemia is
often difficult to identify, transfusion-transmitted infection is a rare cause. The incidence of bacterial
transmission through donated blood is estimated at between 1 per 100,000 and 1 per 1,000,000 units for
packed red blood cells, and between 1 per 900 and 1 per 100,000 units for platelets (Walther-Wenke 2008).
Fatalities are associated with 1 in 8,000,000 red cell units and 1 in 50,000 to 500,000 white cell units (Wagner
2004). The reason for higher rates in platelet transfusion is thought to be because frozen platelets are thawed
and stored at room temperature before infusion and if they are not used immediately there is an opportunity for
any organisms that may be present to multiply before the product is transfused. Further reduction of infection
rates depends on ensuring that blood for transfusion is free of contaminants. One way of achieving this is
through careful preparation and cleansing of the donor's skin at the collection site.
Description of the intervention
There is no standard method for cleansing the site on the blood donor's skin from which the blood will be taken
(generally the cubital fossa, or the inner aspect of the elbow). However, alcohol, followed by an application of
povidone iodine has been traditionally used (Shahar 1990; Kiyoyama 2009). Consequently, the interventions of
interest for this review are skin cleansing with alcohol (usually 70% isopropyl alcohol) for skin preparation in a
one-step process, compared with a two-step process involving alcohol followed by povidone iodine or other
antiseptic solution. Antiseptics are antimicrobial substances that are applied to living tissue or skin to reduce the
possibility of infection, sepsis or putrefaction. They should generally be distinguished from antibiotics that
destroy bacteria within the body, and from disinfectants, which destroy microorganisms found on non-living
objects. Alcohol is widely used prior to venepuncture and is available from a number of manufacturers as easyto-
use disinfection wipes. Isopropyl alcohol is a flammable, colourless liquid; also known as 2-propanol (MSDS
Annex J: Cochrane review 89
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2006).
How the intervention might work
Alcohol kills most bacteria and fungi by acting on lipid and protein components of the cell. It is less effective
against viruses (Adams 2007). Isopropyl alcohol has some advantages over other products because it requires a
shorter contact time to achieve antisepsis. For example some two-step procedures take up to two minutes to
perform, which is considered too long for some blood bank services (McDonald 2006). Antiseptics are toxic to
living tissues as well as bacterial cells, some antiseptics are true germicides, capable of destroying microbes
(bacteriocidal), whilst others are bacteriostatic and only prevent or inhibit their growth (Morgan 1993).
Why it is important to do this review
Although a range of antiseptics has been used to cleanse the skin of the donor arm, a two-step process,
including alcohol and iodine is widely used (Shahar 1990; Kiyoyama 2009). The effectiveness of this regimen, and
other forms of cleansing has been evaluated in a number of studies by measuring the microbial load on the
donor arm (Cid 2003; Follea 1997; Goldman 1997; McDonald 2001; Wong 2004) and any contamination of
platelet concentrates de Korte 2006; Lee 2002) however it remains unclear whether isopropyl alcohol alone is as
effective as alcohol plus povidone iodine (or any other antiseptic) in preventing the clinical consequences of
contaminated blood. This review question was brought to us by the World Health Organisation (WHO) and a
scoping search did not identify any existing systematic review which had previously addressed this question.
Objectives
To assess the effects of cleansing the donor arm with alcohol in a one-step regimen compared with a two-step
regimen including alcohol followed by any other antiseptic to prevent donor blood contamination or recipient
bacteraemia.
Methods
Criteria for considering studies for this review
Types of studies
All randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing a one-step alcohol regimen with any two-step regimen that
includes alcohol followed by another antiseptic for pre-venepuncture skin cleansing were considered. Cluster
randomised trials and crossover trials were also eligible for inclusion. Quasi randomised trials were to have been
considered in the absence of RCTs.
Types of participants
Studies enrolling people of any age and in any setting, having venepuncture and blood collection were eligible,
irrespective of whether the venepuncture was for the purpose of blood donation. Studies should also include
follow up from the recipients of the donated blood in order to measure outcomes occurring in the recipient.
Types of interventions
Studies which compared one-step donor skin cleansing with alcohol (any concentration or application method)
with a two-step method which involved alcohol (any strength or application method) followed by any other
antiseptic (any concentration or application method) were eligible.
Types of outcome measures
At least one of the primary outcomes was to have been reported for the study to be considered for inclusion in
the review.
Primary outcomes
Bacteraemia in the blood recipient (the presence of bacteria in the blood stream) as measured by blood
culture.
Blood product contamination (blood products include whole blood, platelets, red blood cells or any other
product derived from the blood collection) at any time between collection and transfusion as detected most
commonly by blood culture.
Proxy outcome measures, such as skin contamination or skin colonisation, were not considered for several
reasons. Namely, any antiseptic will reduce levels of microflora on the skin and swabbing skin for bacteria is
really a 'sampling procedure' which is subject to inconsistencies in sampling. In addition, a positive skin culture
does not automatically mean that the blood collected for transfusion will be positive for bacteria (in the same way
that a positive skin culture before surgery does not mean the person will develop a surgical site infection).
Secondary outcomes
Death of the blood recipient, attributed to the transfusion.
Any adverse effects in the blood recipient associated with the transfusion. This may include sepsis (a grouping
of signs such as fever, chills, or hypotension), septic shock (severe disturbances of temperature, respiration,
heart rate or white blood cell count) or multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (altered organ function in a
severely ill patient that requires medical intervention to prevent death).
90 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
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Search methods for identification of studies
Electronic searches
We searched the following databases:
Cochrane Wounds Group Specialised Register (Searched March 10 2009);
The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) -The Cochrane Library 2009, Issue 1;
Ovid MEDLINE - 1950 to February Week 4 2009;
Ovid EMBASE - 1980 to 2009 Week 9;
EBSCO CINAHL - 1982 to February Week 4 2009.
The Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) was searched using the following strategy:
#1 MeSH descriptor Blood Specimen Collection explode all trees
#2 MeSH descriptor Blood Transfusion explode all trees
#3 MeSH descriptor Blood Donors explode all trees
#4 (blood NEXT collection*) or (blood NEXT donor*) or (blood NEXT donation*):ti,ab,kw
#5 (collection NEAR/1 blood) or (donation NEAR/1 blood):ti,ab,kw
#6 ven*puncture NEXT site*:ti,ab,kw
#7 (#1 OR #2 OR #3 OR #4 OR #5 OR #6)
#8 MeSH descriptor Antisepsis explode all trees
#9 MeSH descriptor Anti-Infective Agents, Local explode all trees
#10 MeSH descriptor Iodine Compounds explode all trees
#11 MeSH descriptor Povidone-Iodine explode all trees
#12 MeSH descriptor Alcohols explode all trees
#13 MeSH descriptor Disinfectants explode all trees
#14 MeSH descriptor Disinfection explode all trees
#15 skin NEXT preparation:ti,ab,kw
#16 disinfect*:ti,ab,kw
#17 (“alcohol” or “alcohols” or iodine or povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine):ti,ab,kw
#18 (#8 OR #9 OR #10 OR #11 OR #12 OR #13 OR #14 OR #15 OR #16 OR #17)
#19 (#7 AND #18)
The search strategies for Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE and EBSCO CINAHL can be found in Appendix 2, Appendix
3 and Appendix 4 respectively. The Ovid MEDLINE search was combined with the Cochrane Highly Sensitive
Search Strategy for identifying randomised trials in MEDLINE: sensitivity- and precision-maximizing version
(2008 revision) (Lefebvre 2008). The Ovid EMBASE and EBSCO CINAHL searches were combined with the trial
filters developed by the Scottish Intercollegiate Guidelines Network (SIGN 2008). There was no restriction on the
basis of date or language of publication.
Searching other resources
Reference lists of articles retrieved in full were searched.
Data collection and analysis
Selection of studies
Titles and abstracts identified through the search process were independently reviewed by two review authors.
Full reports of all potentially relevant studies were retrieved for further assessment of eligibility based on the
inclusion criteria. Differences of opinion were settled by consensus or referral to a third review author. There was
no blinding to study authorship when we did these assessments.
Data extraction and management
We had planned to extract the following data, where available (to be extracted by one review author and checked
by a second review author):
details of the trial/study (first author, year of publication, journal, publication status, period);
setting and country of study;
source of funding;
inclusion and exclusion criteria;
baseline characteristics of participants (age, sex);
aspects of morbidity of the blood recipients, e.g. predictors of susceptibility to bacteraemia;
number of participants in each arm of the trial;
description of intervention (type, duration);
description of control intervention (type, duration);
details and duration of follow up;
primary and secondary outcomes (by group);
design / methodological quality data as per risk of bias criteria;
unit of randomisation (where relevant);
unit of analysis;
results and primary statistical analysis.
Annex J: Cochrane review 91
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Assessment of risk of bias in included studies
Two review authors were to independently assess study risk of bias using the Cochrane Collaboration tool (
Higgins 2008a).This tool addresses six specific domains, namely sequence generation, allocation concealment,
blinding, incomplete outcome data, selective outcome reporting and other issues (e.g. co-interventions)(see
Appendix 1 for details of criteria on which the judgements were to have been based). Blinding and completeness
of outcome data would have been assessed for each outcome separately and we had planned to complete a risk
of bias table for each eligible study.
We planned to contact investigators of included studies to resolve any ambiguities. We also planned to include
data from duplicate publications only once, but to retrieve all publications pertaining to a single study to enable
full data extraction and risk of bias quality assessment.
For any eligible study, we planned to present assessment of risk of bias using a 'risk of bias summary figure',
which presents the judgments in a cross-tabulation of study by entry. This display of internal validity indicates
the weight the reader may give the results of each study.
Measures of treatment effect
For individual trials, effect measures for categorical outcomes (e.g. rates of bacteraemia) would have included
relative risk (RR) with its 95% confidence interval (CI). For continuous outcomes, we planned to use the mean
difference (MD) or, if the scale of measurement differed across trials, standardized mean difference (SMD), each
with its 95% CI. For any meta-analyses (see below), for categorical outcomes the typical estimates of RR with their
95% CI would have been calculated; and for continuous outcomes the weighted mean difference (WMD) or a
summary estimate for SMD, each with its 95% CI, would have been calculated.
We planned to analyse data using The Cochrane Collaboration's Review Manager 5 software.
Dealing with missing data
If outcome data had remained missing despite our attempts to obtain complete outcome data from authors, we
would have performed an available-case analysis, based on the numbers of patients for whom outcome data
were known. If standard deviations were missing, we would have imputed them from other studies or, where
possible, computed them from standard errors using the formula SD = SE x √¯N , where these were available (
Higgins 2008b).
Assessment of heterogeneity
Heterogeneity would have been assessed visually and by using the chi-squared statistic with significance being
set at p < 0.10. In addition, the degree of heterogeneity would have been investigated by calculating the I2
statistic (Deeks 2008). If evidence of significant heterogeneity had been identified (I2 >50%), we would have
explored potential causes and a random-effects approach to the analysis would have been used if a metaanalysis
had been appropriate.
Assessment of reporting biases
Reporting bias would have been assessed using guidelines in the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of
Interventions (Sterne 2008).
Data synthesis
Where appropriate, results of comparable trials would have been pooled and the pooled estimate together with
its 95% CI would have been reported. We planned to conduct a narrative review of eligible studies if statistical
synthesis of data from more than one study was not possible or considered not appropriate.
Subgroup analysis and investigation of heterogeneity
We planned to analyse potential sources of heterogeneity using the following subgroup analysis: concealment of
allocation (adequate versus not reported).
Sensitivity analysis
We planned to undertake a sensitivity analysis to explore the effect of excluding studies where concealment of
allocation was unclear
Results
Description of studies
We did not find any randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials that met the inclusion criteria.
Results of the search
Our initial search identified 457 citations of which 19 were considered potentially relevant. Full copies of these
papers were obtained and reviewed independently by two review authors, however, none met the inclusion
criteria.
Included studies
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No studies were included.
Excluded studies
The Table: Characteristics of excluded studies contains reasons for excluding 19 potentially eligible studies. In
summary, two citations were for unsystematic literature reviews (Blajchman 2004; Wendel 2002) eight trials did
not compare the eligible interventions (Calfee 2002; Choudhuri 1990; Little 1999; Mimoz 1999; Schifman 1993;
Sutton 1999; Suwanpimolkul 2008; Trautner 2002). Eight studies were not randomised or quasi randomised
controlled trials (Kiyoyama 2009; de Korte 2006; Goldman 1997; Lee 2002; McDonald 2006; Pleasant 1994
Shahar 1990; Wong 2004). One study examined techniques for quantifying bacterial reduction (Follea 1997).
Risk of bias in included studies
No studies were included.
Effects of interventions
We did not identify any eligible randomised or quasi randomised controlled trials, nor were we able to identify
any ongoing trials.
Discussion
We have been unable to identify any trials addressing the effectiveness of alcohol alone compared with alcohol
followed by any other antiseptic to prevent bacteraemia from transfused blood or blood products. This may be
because infusion related bacteraemia is a relatively rare event and very large trials would be needed to
investigate the effect of donor-arm cleansing. Sepsis rates for platelet transfusions are around 1:50,000 and for
red cell transfusions around 1:500,000 (Sandler 2003). Therefore mounting a trial large enough to detect
differences in clinical outcomes, based on products used for arm cleansing, would be prohibitively expensive and
lengthy.
Because of this, surrogate measures, such as contamination of stored blood have been used to evaluate
antisepsis efficacy. However, again, we found no trials that compared alcohol alone with alcohol followed by any
other antiseptic for cleansing the donor skin. A number of studies used the surrogate outcome of post-cleansing
skin microbial load at the venepuncture site however we excluded such studies a priori on the grounds that this
is a surrogate outcome of unproven validity; it is not known how skin contamination relates to blood recipient
outcomes. Moreover none of these trials compared a one-step with a two-step cleansing process (de Korte 2006;
Follea 1997; Goldman 1997).
Whilst we did identify two studies that compared the effects of the eligible interventions they were otherwise
ineligible for important methodological reasons and did not meet our pre-specified study design eligibility
criteria. The first compared blood culture contamination following pre-venepuncture cleansing with 70% alcohol
for one minute followed by povidone iodine solution for an additional minute with brief swabbing of the skin
three to five times with 70% alcohol. Patients who were suspected of having bacteraemia had two blood samples
taken; once using the two-step method and once with the standard method. Unfortunately it appeared from the
report that the order in which the methods were used was not randomised and samples may have been taken
from the same or a closely adjacent site with an unreported time lapse between sampling. Of the 181 cultures
tested in each group, eight (4.4%) were positive in the two-step group compared with six (3.3%) in the one-step
preparation group (no statistically significant difference) (Shahar 1990). The second study potentially suffers
from important selection bias in that the treatment groups were in different settings as well as receiving different
modes of skin cleansing and compared blood culture contamination rates between patients in whom blood had
been drawn in the emergency department and who received a one-step 70% alcohol cleansing with inpatients
who received a two-step 70% alcohol followed by povidone iodine procedure. Although there was a statistically
significant difference in positive culture rates in favour of the one step process (189 (6.6%) positive cultures in
the one-step group versus 248 (8.9%) in the two step, alcohol plus iodine group (p = 0.0015) (Kiyoyama 2009)
this study was not eligible for inclusion in the review due to the inherent risk of selection bias (inpatients and
emergency department patients may well be at different levels of risk of positive blood culture). Thus whilst the
authors presented additional data to suggest that baseline positive blood culture rates were similar between
inpatients and emergency department patients the risk of selection bias remains and this study was excluded (
Kiyoyama 2009).
In conclusion there is currently no evidence of a difference in either blood contamination or bacteraemia when
donor skin is cleansed pre-venepuncture with a one-step alcohol based process or a two-step alcohol plus
antiseptic process. This lack of evidence for a difference however results from a complete absence of research
and therefore a real difference cannot be discounted. Until better evidence emerges, decisions about which mode
of pre-blood donation skin cleansing to use are likely to be driven by convenience and cost. It is also important
to note that arm cleansing is only one of the points at which blood contamination may occur. Careful collection
and storage of blood and blood products, and systematic surveillance to detect bacterial contamination can all
contribute to the safety of patients requiring blood transfusions. Eliminating all bacteria from stored blood may
not be possible. So, following relevant clinical guidelines (for example UK BTS Guidelines 2005) for collection and
for detecting bacterial contamination in stored blood, both at the time of collection and at the time of issue, may
be the most effective way of reducing infusion related bacteraemia (Yomtovian 2006).
Summary of main results
Annex J: Cochrane review 93
Skin preparation with alcohol versus alcohol followed by any antiseptic for preventing bacteraemia or contamination of ...
7 / 15
We did not identify any eligible studies for inclusion in this review. It is therefore unclear whether a two-step,
alcohol followed by antiseptic skin cleansing process prior to blood donation confers any reduction in the risk of
blood contamination or bacteraemia in blood recipients (or conversely whether a one-step process increases risk
above that associated with a two-step process).
Potential biases in the review process
Biases in the review process were minimised as far as possible by adhering to the guidance provided by the
Cochrane Handbook ( Higgins 2008). We believe that publication bias is unlikely in this case; whilst no trials met
the inclusion criteria , this is probably due to the difficulty and expense associated with mounting a trial large
enough to answer the question.
Authors' conclusions
Implications for practice
We did not find any eligible randomised or quasi randomised controlled trials. Until further research emerges,
decisions about which mode of pre-blood donation skin cleansing to use are likely to be driven by convenience
and cost. It is also important to note that arm cleansing is only one of the points at which blood contamination
may occur.
Implications for research
Cleansing the donor skin before taking blood for transfusion is important, but conducting a trial to compare the
effects of using specific antiseptics on bacteraemia rates would be logistically difficult given the relatively rare
event rate. It may be possible to estimate the effects of disinfecting with alcohol alone versus alcohol plus other
antiseptics on blood contamination rates but this would still require very large sample sizes to detect clinically
important differences. Alternatively, high quality observational studies may provide additional information to
guide practice. A future comprehensive evidence synthesis that summarised the evidence for all competing
alternative approaches to pre-blood donation skin cleansing would be worthwhile.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the peer referees: Martin Bland, Julie Bruce, Mike Clarke, Jo Dumville,
Carmel Hughes, Susan O'Meara, Ian Roberts and David Tovey. Nicky Cullum provided editorial input throughout
the review process and checked the search results.
Contributions of authors
Joan Webster: designed the review, checked the search results and all papers retrieved in full, wrote the review
draft, responded to the peer referee feedback, made an intellectual contribution to the review and approved the
final review prior to submission. Guarantor of the review
Sally Bell-Syer: coordinated the review, edited the review draft, responded to the peer referee feedback, made an
intellectual contribution to the review and approved the final review prior to submission.
Ruth Foxlee: designed the search strategy, conducted the literature searches and retrieved papers. Edited the
search methods section and responded to the peer referee feedback and approved the final review prior to
submission.
Declarations of interest
none known
Differences between protocol and review
Nil
Published notes
This rapid review was undertaken at the request of the World Health Organisation (WHO). This organisation
framed the review question but they did not provide funding or influence its publication.
Characteristics of studies
Characteristics of included studies
Footnotes
Characteristics of excluded studies
Blajchman 2004
Reason for exclusion Narrative, non-systematic literature review
Calfee 2002
94 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Skin preparation with alcohol versus alcohol followed by any antiseptic for preventing bacteraemia or contamination of ...
8 / 15
Reason for exclusion None of the four study arms involved a two-step skin preparation process.
Choudhuri 1990
Reason for exclusion Comparison of two one-step processes; alcohol swab compared with iodine
swab.
de Korte 2006
Reason for exclusion Single arm study evaluating a double-swab isopropyl alcohol disinfection
process.
Follea 1997
Reason for exclusion Examined techniques for quantifying bacterial reduction by comparing a threestep
process with no skin disinfection.
Goldman 1997
Reason for exclusion Abstract only available and it was unclear how patients where allocated to
groups. Though this was not likely to have been randomised or quasirandomised
because one group was treated in a particular way on the basis
that they were allergic to iodine. Also there was no one-step, alcohol-only skin
preparation group.
Kiyoyama 2009
Reason for exclusion Not a randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trial. Two independent
groups were considered; one group from an inpatient ward was treated with
isopropyl alcohol + povidone-iodine and the other from an emergency
department was treated with isopropyl alcohol alone.
Lee 2002
Reason for exclusion Not a randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trial. Comparison of two
two-step processes in consecutive time periods. Cetrimide/ chlorhexidine
solution + isopropyl alcohol compared with povidone-iodine + isopropyl
alcohol.
Little 1999
Reason for exclusion Povidone-iodine was compared with iodine tincture, i.e. not a comparison of a
one-step with a two-step skin preparation.
McDonald 2006
Reason for exclusion An uncontrolled before and after evaluation of a two-step process involving
isopropyl alcohol + tincture of iodine.
Mimoz 1999
Reason for exclusion Povidone-iodine compared with chlorhexidine, i.e. not a comparison of a onestep
with a two-step skin preparation.
Pleasant 1994
Reason for exclusion Only available in abstract form; no information to suggest this was a
randomised controlled trial; attempts to contact the authors were
unsuccessful.
Annex J: Cochrane review 95
Skin preparation with alcohol versus alcohol followed by any antiseptic for preventing bacteraemia or contamination of ...
9 / 15
Schifman 1993
Reason for exclusion Comparison of two two-step processes, namely, isopropyl alcohol pads +
povidone-iodine swabs compared with isopropyl alcohol/acetone scrub +
povidone-iodine dispenser.
Shahar 1990
Reason for exclusion Not a randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trial; the venepuncture site
was cleansed with a two-step process after which a culture was taken, at a
later time point the venepuncture site was cleansed with a one-step process
after which a culture was taken. The two samples were collected from the
same person but it is not clear from the report if the two venepuncture sites
were different, if there was a possibility of cross contamination between sites
and what time period separated the sampling process..
Sutton 1999
Reason for exclusion Isopropyl alcohol (IPA) compared with no IPA skin preparation, i.e. not a
comparison of a one-step with a two-step skin preparation.
Suwanpimolkul 2008
Reason for exclusion Chlorhexidine in alcohol compared with povidone-iodine, i.e. not a
comparison of a one-step with a two-step skin preparation.
Trautner 2002
Reason for exclusion Chlorhexidine gluconate compared with iodine tincture, i.e. not a comparison
of a one-step with a two-step skin preparation .
Wendel 2002
Reason for exclusion Narrative, non-systematic literature review.
Wong 2004
Reason for exclusion An uncontrolled before and after study of a one-step process involving
chlorhexidine gluconate.
Footnotes
Characteristics of studies awaiting classification
Footnotes
Characteristics of ongoing studies
Footnotes
Summary of findings tables
Additional tables
References to studies
Included studies
Excluded studies
Blajchman 2004
Blajchman MA, Goldman M, Baeza F. Improving the bacteriological safety of platelet transfusions. Transfusion
Medicine Reviews 2004;18(1):11-24.
Calfee 2002
Calfee DP, Farr BM. Comparison of four antiseptic preparations for skin in the prevention of contamination of
percutaneously drawn blood cultures: a randomized trial. Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2002;40(5):1660-5.
96 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Skin preparation with alcohol versus alcohol followed by any antiseptic for preventing bacteraemia or contamination of ...
10 / 15
Choudhuri 1990
Choudhuri M, McQueen R, Inoue S, Gordon RC. Efficiency of skin sterilization for a venipuncture with the use of
commercially available alcohol or iodine pads. American Journal of Infection Control 1990;18(2):82-5.
de Korte 2006
de Korte D, Curvers J, de Kort WL, Hoekstra T, van der Poel CL, Beckers EA, et al. Effects of skin disinfection
method, deviation bag, and bacterial screening on clinical safety of platelet transfusions in the Netherlands.
Transfusion 2006;46(3):476-85.
Follea 1997
Folléa G, Saint-Laurent P, Bigey F, Gayet S, Bientz M, Cazenave JP. Quantitative bacteriological evaluation of a
method for skin disinfection in blood donors. Transfusion Clinique et Biologique 1997;4(6):523-31.
Goldman 1997
Goldman M, Roy G, Fréchette N, Décary F, Massicotte L, Delage G. Evaluation of donor skin disinfection methods.
Transfusion 1997;37(3):309-12.
Kiyoyama 2009
Kiyoyama T, Tokuda Y, Shiiki S, Hachiman T, Shimasaki T, Endo K. Isopropyl alcohol compared with isopropyl
alcohol plus povidone-iodine as skin preparation for prevention of blood culture contamination. Journal of
Clinical Microbiology 2009;47(1):54-8.
Lee 2002
Lee CK, Ho PL, Chan NK, Mak A, Hong J, Lin CK. Impact of donor arm skin disinfection on the bacterial
contamination rate of platelet concentrates. Vox Sanguinis 2002;83(3):204-8.
Little 1999
Little JR, Murray PR, Traynor PS, Spitznagel E. A randomized trial of povidone-iodine compared with iodine
tincture for venipuncture site disinfection: effects on rates of blood culture contamination. American Journal of
Medicine 1999;107(2):119-25.
McDonald 2006
McDonald CP. Bacterial risk reduction by improved donor arm disinfection, diversion and bacterial screening.
Transfusion Medicine 2006;16(6):381-96.
Mimoz 1999
Mimoz O, Karim A, Mercat A, Cosseron M, Falissard B, Parker F, et al. Chlorhexidine compared with povidoneiodine
as skin preparation before blood culture. A randomized, controlled trial. Annals of Internal Medicine
1999;131(11):834-7.
Pleasant 1994
Pleasant H, Marini J, Stehling L. Evaluation of three skin preps for use prior to phlebotomy. Tranfusion
1994;34(Supp):14S.
Schifman 1993
Schifman RB, Pindur A. The effect of skin disinfection materials on reducing blood culture contamination.
American Journal of Clinical Pathology 1993;99(5):536-8.
Shahar 1990
Shahar E, Wohl-Gottesman BS, Shenkman L. Contamination of blood cultures during venepuncture: fact or myth?
Postgraduate Medical Journal 1990;66(782):1053-8.
Sutton 1999
Sutton CD, White SA, Edwards R, Lewis MH. A prospective controlled trial of the efficacy of isopropyl alcohol
wipes before venesection in surgical patients. Annals of the Royal Collegeof Surgeons of England
1999;81(3):183-6.
Suwanpimolkul 2008
Suwanpimolkul G, Pongkumpai M, Suankratay C. A randomized trial of 2% chlorhexidine tincture compared with
10% aqueous povidone-iodine for venipuncture site disinfection: Effects on blood culture contamination rates.
The Journal of Infection 2008;56(5):354-9.
Trautner 2002
Trautner BW, Clarridge JE, Darouiche RO. Skin antisepsis kits containing alcohol and chlorhexidine gluconate or
tincture of iodine are associated with low rates of blood culture contamination. Infection Control and Hospital
Epidemiology 2002;23(7):397-401.
Annex J: Cochrane review 97
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Wendel 2002
Wendel S. Chemoprophylaxis of transfusion-transmitted agents in labile blood components. Revista da Sociedade
Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 2002;35(4):275-81.
Wong 2004
Wong P-Y, Colville VL, White V, Walker HM, Morris RA. Validation and assessment of a blood-donor arm
disinfectant containing chlorhexidine and alcohol. Transfusion 2004;44(8):1238-42.
Studies awaiting classification
Ongoing studies
Other references
Additional references
Adams 2007
Adams D, Elliot TS. Skin antiseptics used prior to intravascular catheter insertion. British Journal of Nursing
2007;16(5):278-80.
Cid 2003
Cid J, Ortín X, Ardanuy C, Contreras E, Elies E, Martín-Vega C. Bacterial persistence on blood donors' arms after
phlebotomy site preparation: analysis of risk factors. Haematologica 2003;88(7):839-40.
Deeks 2008
Deeks, JJ , Higgins JPT, Altman DG on behalf of the Cochrane Statistical Methods Group and the Cochrane Bias
Methods Group (Editors). Chapter 9: Analysing data and undertaking meta-analyses. In: Higgins JPT, Green S
(editors), Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.0 (updated February 2008).The
Cochrane Collaboration, 2008. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Hakim 2007
Hakim H, Mylotte JM, Faden H. Morbidity and mortality of Staphylococcal bacteremia in children. Americal Journal
of Infection Control 2007;35(2):102-5.
Herchline 1997
Herchline T, Gros S. Improving clinical outcome in bacteremia. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice
1997;4(3):191-5.
Higgins 2008
Higgins JPT, Green S (editors) . Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.1 (
updated September 2008 ) . The Cochrane Collaboration. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org , 2008 .
Higgins 2008a
Higgins JPT, Altman DG on behalf of the Cochrane Statistical Methods Group and the Cochrane Bias Methods
Group (Editors). Chapter 8: Assessing risk of bias in included studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors), Cochrane
Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.0 (updated February 2008).The Cochrane
Collaboration, 2008. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Higgins 2008b
Higgins JPT, Deeks JJ, Altman DG on behalf of the Cochrane Statistical Methods Group and the Cochrane Bias
Methods Group (Editors). Chapter 16: Special topics in statistics. Higgins JPT, Green S (editors), Cochrane
Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.0 (updated February 2008).The Cochrane
Collaboration, 2008. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
Lefebvre 2008
Lefebvre C, Manheimer E, Glanville J. Chapter 6: Searching for studies. In: Higgins JPT, Green S (editors). Cochrane
Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions Version 5.0.0 (updated February 2008). The Cochrane
Collaboration, 2008. Available from www.cochrane-handbook.org.
McDonald 2001
McDonald CP, Lowe P, Roy A, Robbins S, Hartley S, Harrison JF, et al. Evaluation of donor arm disinfection
techniques. Vox Sanguinis 2001;80(3):135-41.
Morgan 1993
Morgan D . Is there still a role for antiseptics? . Journal of Tissue Viability 1993 ; 3 : 80-4 .
MSDS 2006
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). Safety data for 2-propanol. http://msds.chem.ox.ac.uk/PR/2-propanol.html
2006.
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Sandler SG, Yu H, Rassai N. Risks of blood transfusion and their prevention. Clinical Advances in Hematology and
Oncology 2003;1(5):307-13.
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Sligl W, Taylor G, Brindley PG. Five years of nosocomial Gram-negative bacteremia in a general intensive care
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Virge James (Editor). Collection of a blood donation. In: Guidelines for the Blood Transfusion Services in the
United Kingdom. 7th edition. London: TSO (The Stationery Office), 2005:33-39.
Wagner 2004
Wagner SJ. Transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection: risks, sources and interventions. Vox Sanguinis
2004;86(3):157-63.
Walther-Wenke 2008
Walther-Wenke G. Incidence of bacterial transmission and transfusion reactions by blood components. Clinical
Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine 2008;46(7):919-25.
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Yomtovian RA, Palavecino EL, Dysktra AH, Downes KA, Morrissey AM, Bajaksouzian S, et al. Evolution of
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Other published versions of this review
Classification pending references
Data and analyses
Figures
Sources of support
Internal sources
Department of Health Sciences, University of York, UK
External sources
No sources of support provided
Feedback
Appendices
1 Criteria for a judgment of 'yes' for the sources of bias
1. Was the allocation sequence randomly generated?
Yes, low risk of bias
A random (unpredictable) assignment sequence.
Examples of adequate methods of sequence generation are computer-generated random sequence, coin toss (for
studies with two groups), rolling a dice (for studies with two or more groups), drawing of balls of different
colours, dealing previously shuffled cards.
No, high risk of bias
- Quasi-randomised approach: Examples of inadequate methods are: alternation, birth date, social
insurance/security number, date in which they are invited to participate in the study, and hospital registration
number
- Non-random approaches: Allocation by judgement of the clinician; by preference of the participant; based on
Annex J: Cochrane review 99
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the results of a laboratory test or a series of tests; by availability of the intervention.
Unclear
Insufficient information about the sequence generation process to permit judgement
2. Was the treatment allocation adequately concealed?
Yes, low risk of bias
Assignment must be generated independently by a person not responsible for determining the eligibility of the
participants. This person has no information about the persons included in the trial and has no influence on the
assignment sequence or on the decision about whether the person is eligible to enter the trial. Examples of
adequate methods of allocation concealment are: Central allocation, including telephone, web-based, and
pharmacy controlled,randomisation; sequentially numbered drug containers of identical appearance; sequentially
numbered, opaque, sealed envelopes.
No, high risk of bias
Examples of inadequate methods of allocation concealment are: alternate medical record numbers, unsealed
envelopes; date of birth; case record number; alternation or rotation; an open list of random numbers any
information in the study that indicated that investigators or participants could influence the intervention group.
Unclear
Randomisation stated but no information on method of allocation used is available.
3. Blinding was knowledge of the allocated interventions adequately prevented during the study?
Was the participant blinded to the intervention?
Yes, low risk of bias
The treatment and control groups are indistinguishable for the participants or if the participant was described as
blinded and the method of blinding was described.
No, high risk of bias
- Blinding of study participants attempted, but likely that the blinding could have been broken; participants
were not blinded, and the nonblinding of others likely to introduce bias.
Unclear
Was the care provider blinded to the intervention?
Yes, low risk of bias
The treatment and control groups are indistinguishable for the care/treatment providers or if the care provider
was described as blinded and the method of blinding was described.
No, high risk of bias
Blinding of care/treatment providers attempted, but likely that the blinding could have been broken;
care/treatment providers were not blinded, and the nonblinding of others likely to introduce bias.
Unclear
Was the outcome assessor blinded to the intervention?
Yes, low risk of bias
Adequacy of blinding should be assessed for the primary outcomes. The outcome assessor was described as
blinded and the method of blinding was described.
No, high risk of bias
No blinding or incomplete blinding, and the outcome or outcome measurement is likely to be influenced by lack
of blinding
Unclear
4. Were incomplete outcome data adequately addressed?
Was the drop-out rate described and acceptable?
The number of participants who were included in the study but did not complete the observation period or were
not included in the analysis must be described and reasons given.
Yes, low risk of bias
If the percentage of withdrawals and drop-outs does not exceed 20% for short-term follow-up and 30% for longterm
follow-up and does not lead to substantial bias. (N.B. these percentages are arbitrary, not supported by
literature);
No missing outcome data;
Reasons for missing outcome data unlikely to be related to true outcome (for survival data, censoring unlikely to
be introducing bias);
Missing outcome data balanced in numbers across intervention groups, with similar reasons for missing data
across groups;
Missing data have been imputed using appropriate methods.
No, high risk of bias
100 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
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Reason for missing outcome data likely to be related to true outcome, with either imbalance in numbers or
reasons for missing data across intervention groups;
Unclear
Were all randomised participants analysed in the group to which they were allocated? (ITT analysis)
Yes, low risk of bias
Specifically reported by authors that ITT was undertaken and this was confirmed on study assessment, or not
stated but evident from study assessment that all randomised participants are reported/analysed in the group
they were allocated to for the most important time point of outcome measurement (minus missing values)
irrespective of non-compliance and co-interventions.
No, high risk of bias
Lack of ITT confirmed on study assessment (patients who were randomised were not included in the analysis
because they did not receive the study intervention, they withdrew from the study or were not included because
of protocol violation) regardless of whether ITT reported or not
‘As-treated’ analysis done with substantial departure of the intervention received from that assigned at
randomisation; potentially inappropriate application of simple imputation.
Unclear
Described as ITT analysis, but unable to confirm on study assessment, or not reported and unable to confirm by
study assessment.
5. Are reports of the study free of suggestion of selective outcome reporting?
Yes, low risk of bias
If all the results from all pre-specified outcomes have been adequately reported in the published report of the
trial. This information is either obtained by comparing the protocol and the final trial report, or in the absence of
the protocol, assessing that the published report includes enough information to make this judgment.
Alternatively a judgement could be made if the trial report lists the outcomes of interest in the methods of the
trial and then reports all these outcomes in the results section of the trial report.
No, high risk of bias
Not all of the study’s pre-specified primary outcomes have been reported;
One or more primary outcomes is reported using measurements, analysis methods or subsets of the data (e.g.
sub scales) that were not prespecified;
One or more reported primary outcomes were not pre-specified (unless clear justification for their reporting is
provided, such as an unexpected adverse effect);
One or more outcomes of interest in the review are reported incompletely so that they cannot be entered in a
meta-analysis;
The study report fails to include results for a key outcome that would be expected to have been reported for such
a study.
Unclear
6. Other sources of potential bias:
Were co-interventions avoided or similar?
There were no co-interventions or there were co-interventions but they were similar between the treatment and
control groups.
Was the compliance acceptable in all groups?
The review author determines if the compliance with the interventions is acceptable, based on the reported
intensity, duration, number and frequency of sessions for both the treatment intervention and control
intervention(s). For example, ultrasound treatment is usually administered over several sessions; therefore it is
necessary to assess how many sessions each participant attended or if participants completed the course of an
oral drug therapy. For single-session interventions (for example: surgery), this item is irrelevant.
2 Ovid MEDLINE search strategy
1 exp Blood Specimen Collection/
2 exp Blood Transfusion/
3 exp Blood Donors/
4 (blood collection$ or blood donor$ or blood donation$).ti,ab.
5 ((collect$ adj1 blood) or (donat$ adj1 blood)).ti,ab.
6 ven?puncture site$.ti,ab.
7 or/1-6
8 exp Antisepsis/
9 exp Anti-Infective Agents, Local/
10 exp Iodine Compounds/
11 exp Povidone-Iodine/
12 exp Alcohols/
Annex J: Cochrane review 101
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13 exp Disinfectants/
14 exp Disinfection/
15 skin preparation.ti,ab.
16 disinfect$.ti,ab.
17 (alcohol$1 or iodine or povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine).ti,ab.
18 or/8-17
19 7 and 18
3 Ovid EMBASE search strategy
1 exp Blood Sampling/
2 exp Blood Transfusion/
3 exp Blood Donor/
4 (blood collection$ or blood donor$ or blood donation$).ti,ab.
5 ((collect$ adj1 blood) or (donat$ adj1 blood)).ti,ab.
6 exp Vein Puncture/
7 ven?puncture site$.ti,ab.
8 or/1-7
9 exp Antisepsis/
10 exp Topical Antiinfective Agent/
11 exp Iodine/
12 exp Povidone Iodine/
13 exp Chlorhexidine/
14 exp Alcohol/
15 exp Disinfectant Agent/
16 exp Disinfection/
17 skin preparation.ti,ab.
18 disinfect$.ti,ab.
19 (alcohol$1 or iodine or povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine).ti,ab.
20 or/9-19
21 8 and 20
4 EBSCO CINAHL search strategy
S19 S9 and S18
S18 S10 or S11 or S12 or S13 or S14 or S15 or S16 or S17
S17 TI ( alcohol or alcohols or iodine or povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine ) or AB ( alcohol or alcohols or iodine
or povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine )
S16 TI disinfect* or AB disinfect*
S15 TI skin preparation or AB skin preparation
S14 (MH "Disinfectants")
S13 (MH "Alcohols+")
S12 (MH "Povidone-Iodine")
S11 (MH "Iodine")
S10 (MH "Antiinfective Agents, Local+")
S9 S1 or S2 or S3 or S4 or S5 or S6 or S7 or S8
S8 TI venepuncture site* or AB venepuncture site*
S7 (MH "Venipuncture+")
S6 TI blood donation* or AB blood donation*
S5 TI blood donor* or AB blood donor*
S4 TI blood collection* or AB blood collection*
S3 (MH "Blood Donors")
S2 (MH "Blood Transfusion+")
S1 (MH "Blood Specimen Collection+")
Annex references 103
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7 Centres for Diseases Control and Prevention. Treatment guidelines: hepatitis B. Morbidity
and Mortality Weekly Report, 2006, 55(TT-11).
http://www.cdc.gov/STD/treatment/2006/hepatitis-b.htm
8 Joint ILO/WHO guidelines on health services and HIV/AIDS: Fact sheet No. 4. Geneva,
International Labour Organization, 2005.
Glossary 105
Glossary
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
Morbidity resulting from infection with the human immunodeficiency virus.
Administrative controls to reduce exposure
A method of minimizing patient or employee exposures through enforcement of policies and
procedures, modification of work assignment, training in specific work practices, and other
administrative measures designed to reduce the exposure.
Alcohol-based hand rub
An alcohol-containing preparation (liquid, gel or foam) designed for application to the hands
to reduce the growth of microorganisms. Such preparations may contain one or more types of
alcohol with excipient (a relatively inert substance used as a carrier for the active ingredients of a
medication), or other active ingredients and humectants.
Antiseptic handwashing
Washing hands with water and soap or other detergents containing an antiseptic agent.
Recommended when carrying out an aseptic technique.
Antiseptics
Antimicrobial substances applied to living tissue or skin to prevent infection. They differ from
antibiotics, which destroy bacteria within the body, and from disinfectants, which are used on
nonliving objects. Some antiseptics are true germicides, capable of destroying microbes whereas
others are bacteriostatic and only prevent or inhibit their growth.
Aseptic technique
The manner of conducting procedures to prevent microbial contamination. An aseptic technique
alters the method of hand hygiene, PPE worn, the location and physicial characteristics where
a procedure is conducted, the use of skin antisepsis and disinfectants in the environment, the
manner of opening of packages and the use of sterile supplies.
Auto-disable (AD) syringe
A syringe designed to prevent reuse by locking or disabling after giving a single injection, Several
types of AD syringes are commercially available.
Biohazard (biological hazard)
A risk to the health of humans caused by exposure to harmful bacteria, viruses or other
dangerous biological agents, or by a material produced by such an organism.
Bloodborne pathogens
Pathogenic microorganisms in human blood that are transmitted through exposure to blood
or blood products, and cause disease in humans. Common pathogens of occupational concern
include hepatitis B virus, hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus.
Capillary blood collection
Blood collected from capillaries, the smallest of a body’s blood vessels, measuring 5–10 μm in
diameter, which connect arterioles and venules. Blood collected by this method is usually by heel
or finger-prick.
Cross-contamination
The act of spreading microbes (bacteria and viruses) from one surface to another. Since
bloodborne viruses can live on objects and surfaces for up to a week, and other pathogens
for months or more, microbes could be spread when surfaces are not disinfected correctly or
equipment is not cleaned and sterilized between patients.
106 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Disinfection
Killing of infectious agents outside the body by direct exposure to chemical or physical agents.
Disinfection is necessary only for diseases spread by indirect contact.
Disposal
Intentional burial, deposit, discharge, dumping, placing or release of any waste material into
or on any air, land or water. In the context of this document, disposal refers to the storage and
subsequent destruction of injection or blood sampling equipment to avoid reuse or injury.
Engineering controls
Methods of isolating or removing hazards from the workplace. Examples include sharps disposal
containers and safer medical devices (e.g. sharps with engineered sharps-injury protections
and needleless systems), laser scalpels and ventilation, including the use of ventilated biological
cabinets (laboratory fume hoods). In the context of sharps injury prevention, engineering
controls means control that isolates or removes the bloodborne pathogens from the workplace.
Finger-prick
A method of capillary sampling. In medicine, some blood tests are conducted on venous blood
obtained by finger-prick. There are ways of opening a small wound that produces no more than
a few drops of blood. The procedure can be painful, but can also be quicker and less distressing
than venepuncture.
Hand hygiene
Any type of hand cleansing.
Handwashing
Washing hands with soap and water, and drying thoroughly afterwards with single-use towels.
Hepatitis B infection
Hepatitis caused by hepatitis B virus (HBV) and transmitted by exposure to blood or blood
products, or during sexual intercourse. It causes acute and chronic hepatitis. Chronic hepatitis B
can cause liver disease, cirrhosis and liver cancer.
Hepatitis C infection
Hepatitis caused by a hepatitis C virus (HCV) and transmitted by exposure to blood or blood
products. Hepatitis C is usually chronic and can cause cirrhosis and primary liver cancer.
Hierarchy of controls
A concept developed in occupational health industrial hygiene to emphasize prevention. The
hierarchy, in order of priority for their efficacy in controlling exposure to hazards and preventing
injury or illness resulting from exposure hazards, is as follows:
• elimination of the hazard;
• engineering controls;
• administrative controls;
• work practice controls; and
• use of personal protective equipment.
See also Annex 4 of Joint ILO/WHO guidelines on health services and HIV/AIDS (Annex
reference 8) for the application of the hierarchy of controls to the hazard of bloodborne pathogen
exposure and needle-stick injuries.
Glossary 107
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
A virus mainly transmitted during sexual intercourse or through exposure to blood or blood
products. HIV causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).
Infection control
A health-care organization’s program, including policies and procedures, for the surveillance,
prevention and control of health-care associated infections. Such a program includes all patient
care and patient care support departments and services. Examples of infection control measures
include immunization, hand hygiene, antimicrobial stewardship, review of facility constructions,
supervision of disinfection and sterilization, surveillance, use of protective clothing and
isolation.
Injection
Percutaneous introduction of a medicinal substance, fluid or nutrient into the body. This may
be accomplished most commonly by a needle and syringe, but also by jet injectors, transdermal
patches, micro-needles and other newer devices. The injections are commonly classified by the
target tissue (e.g. intradermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous, intraosseous, intraarterial,
peritoneal).
Intradermal injection
A shallow injection given between the layers of the skin, creating a “weal” on the skin.
Intramuscular injection
An injection given into the body of a muscle.
Intravenous injection
An injection given into a vein.
Intravascular
Within a blood vessel.
Jet injector
A needle-free device that allows the injection of a substance through the skin under high
pressure.
Lancet
A blood-sampling device to obtain a capillary sample of blood for testing. It is most commonly
used by people with diabetes during blood glucose monitoring. The depth of skin penetration
can be adjusted by selecting lancets of different lengths.
Needle-stick
Penetrating stab wound caused by a needle.
Occupational exposure
Exposure to materials that results from the performance of an employee’s duties.
108 WHO guidelines on drawing blood: best practices in phlebotomy
Other potentially infectious materials
Body fluids that are potentially infectious for HIV, HBV and HBC including:
• semen, vaginal secretions, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, pleural fluid, pericardial fluid,
peritoneal fluid, amniotic fluid, saliva in dental procedures, any body fluid that is visibly
contaminated with blood, and all body fluids in situations where it is difficult or impossible
to differentiate between body fluids;
• any unfixed tissue or organ (other than intact skin) from a human (living or dead);
• cell or tissue cultures, or organ cultures containing HIV;
• culture medium or other solutions containing HIV, HBV or HCV;
• blood, organs or other tissues from experimental animals infected with HIV, HBV or HCV.
Parenteral
Piercing mucous membranes or the skin barrier through subcutaneous, intramuscular,
intravenous or arterial routes; for example, through injections, needle-stick, cuts or abrasions.
Pathogen
A microorganism capable of causing disease.
Personal protective equipment
Specialized equipment worn by an employee to protect against a defined hazard. Such
equipment includes gloves, lab coats, gowns, aprons, shoe covers, goggles, glasses with side
shields, masks, respirators and resuscitation bags. The purpose of personal protective equipment
is to prevent hazardous materials from reaching the workers’ skin, mucous membranes or
personal clothing. The equipment must create an effective barrier between the exposed worker
and the hazard.
Phlebotomy
The act of drawing or removing blood from the circulatory system through an incision or
puncture to obtain a sample for analysis and diagnosis.
Post-exposure care and prophylaxis for HIV
Preventive interventions offered to manage the specific aspects of exposure to HIV, and prevent
HIV infection in exposed individuals. The services include counselling, risk assessment, HIV
testing (based on informed consent), first care and, when needed, the provision of short-term
(28 days) antiretroviral drugs, with follow-up and support.
Post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP)
A medical response given to prevent the transmission of bloodborne pathogens after potential
exposure. It is available for HIV and hepatitis B.
Quality control
A management function whereby control of the quality of raw materials, assemblies, produced
materials and components; services related to production; and management, production
and inspection processes is exercised for the purpose of preventing undetected production of
defective material or the rendering of faulty services.
Recapping
The act of replacing a protective sheath on a needle. Recapping needles using two-handed
methods increases the risk of needle-stick injuries and is not recommended. However, where
such action is unavoidable, the one-hand scoop technique reduces the risk of needle-sticks.
Glossary 109
Safe injection
An injection that does no harm to the recipient, does not expose the health worker to any risk
and does not result in waste that puts the community at risk.
Sharp
Any object that can penetrate the skin; sharps include needles, scalpels, broken glass, broken
capillary tubes and exposed ends of dental wires.
Sharps container
A puncture-resistant, rigid, leak-resistant container designed to hold used sharps safely during
collection, disposal and destruction. Sometimes referred to as a “sharps box” or “safety box”.
Sharps injury
An exposure event occurring when any sharp penetrates the skin.
Sharps protection device
A sharp or needle device used for withdrawing body fluids, accessing a vein or artery, or
administering medications or other fluids. The device has a built-in safety feature or mechanism
that effectively reduces the risk of an exposure incident.
Single-use syringe
A sterile syringe intended for the aspiration of fluids or for the injection of fluids immediately
after filling (ISO 7886-1).
Solid sharp
A sharp that does not have a lumen through which material can flow; for example, a suture
needle, scalpel or lancet.
Standard precautions
A set of practices designed to prevent the spread of infection between health workers and
patients from contact with infectious agents in recognized and unrecognized sources of infection.
Such precautions are recommended for use with all patients, regardless of patient diagnoses or
presumed infectious status. Key elements include hand hygiene, cleaning of the environment,
reprocessing of equipment between patients, use of personal protective equipment, placement
of patients with known infection or colonization into isolation, laundry management, injection
safety, preventing exposure to bloodborne pathogens, waste management and respiratory
hygiene.
Sterile
Free from living microorganisms.
Subcutaneous injection
An injection delivered under the skin.
Syringe with reuse prevention feature
A sterile single-use hypodermic syringe of a design such that it can be rendered unusable after
use (ISO 7886-4).
Work practice controls
Techniques that reduce the likelihood of exposure by changing the way a task is performed.
4377 Design DirectiOn
World Health Organization
Injection Safety & Related Infection Control
Safe Injection Global Network (SIGN) Secretariat
20 Appia Avenue – CH 1211
Geneva 27 – Switzerland
WHO/EHT/10.01
ISBN 978 92 4 159922 1
It is a network of like minded people working in various aspects of infection prevention & control (IPC) in Africa with an aim to establish support in training, operational research and high standards of healthcare practice in healthcare facilities
